by Will Durant
Unlike Dante’s, Mohammed’s picture of heaven is as vivid as his description of hell. Good believers will go there, and those who die for Allah’s cause in war; and the poor will enter 500 years before the rich. Paradise is in or above the seventh astronomic heaven; it is one vast garden, watered with pleasant rivers and shaded with spreading trees; the blessed there will be dressed in silk brocades, and be adorned with gems;3 they will recline on couches, be served by handsome youths, and eat fruit from trees bowing down to fill their hands; there will be rivers of milk, honey, and wine; the saved will drink wine (forbidden on earth) from silver goblets, and will suffer no aftereffects.4 By the mercy of Allah there will be no speeches at these heavenly banquets (lxxviii, 35); instead there will be virgins “never yet touched by man or jinn, … in beauty like the jacinth and coral stone, … with swelling bosoms but modest gaze, with eyes as fair and pure as sheltered eggs,”5 and bodies made of musk, and free from the imperfections and indignities of mortal flesh. Each blessed male will have seventy-two of these houris for his reward, and neither age nor weariness nor death shall mar the loveliness of these maidens, or their comrades’ bliss (xliv, 56). Since pious and believing women will also enter paradise, some confusion might result, but such difficulties would not be insuperable to men accustomed to polygamy. To these sensual pleasures Mohammed added certain spiritual delights: some of the saved will prefer to recite the Koran; and all of them will experience the supreme ecstasy of beholding Allah’s face. “And round about them shall go children, never growing old.”6
Who could reject such a revelation?
III. ETHICS
In the Koran, as in the Talmud, law and morals are one; the secular is included in the religious, and every commandment is of God. Here are rules not only for manners and hygiene, marriage and divorce, and the treatment of children, slaves, and animals, but also for commerce and politics, interest and debts, contracts and wills, industry and finance, crime and punishment, war and peace.
Mohammed did not disdain commerce—he was its graduate; even in his sovereign Medina days, says a tradition, he bought wholesale, sold retail, and made profit without qualm; sometimes he acted as auctioneer.7 His language was rich in commercial metaphors; he promised worldly success to good Moslems (ii, 5), and offered heaven as a bargain for a little belief. He threatened hell to lying or cheating merchants; denounced monopolists, and speculators who “keep back grain to sell at a high rate”;8 and bade the employer “give the laborer his wage before his perspiration dries.”9 He prohibited the taking or giving of interest (ii, 275; iii, 130). No reformer ever more actively taxed the rich to help the poor. Every will was expected to leave something to the poor; if a man died intestate his natural heirs were directed to give a part of their inheritance to charity (iv, 8). Like his religious contemporaries he accepted slavery as a law of nature, but did what he could to mitigate its burdens and its sting.10
In like manner he improved the position of woman in Arabia while accepting her legal subjection with equanimity. We find in him the usual quips of the male resenting his enslavement to desire; almost like a Father of the Church he speaks of women as man’s supreme calamity, and suspects that most of them will go to hell.11 He made his own Salic law against women rulers.12 He allowed women to come to the mosque, but believed that “their homes are better for them”;13 yet when they came to his services he treated them kindly, even if they brought suckling babes; if, says an amiable tradition, he heard a child cry, he would shorten his sermon lest the mother be inconvenienced.14 He put an end to the Arab practice of infanticide (xvii, 31). He placed woman on the same footing with man in legal processes and in financial independence; she might follow any legitimate profession, keep her earnings, inherit property, and dispose of her belongings at will (iv, 4, 32). He abolished the Arab custom of transmitting women as property from father to son. Women were to inherit half as much as the male heirs, and were not to be disposed of against their will.15 A verse in the Koran (xxxiii, 33) seemed to establish purdah: “Stay in your houses, and do not display your finery”; but the emphasis here was on modesty of dress; and a tradition quotes the Prophet as saying to women, “It is permitted you to go out for your needs.”16 With regard to his own wives he asked his followers to speak to them only from behind a curtain.17 Subject to these restrictions, we find Moslem women moving about freely and unveiled in the Islam of his time, and a century thereafter.
Morals are in part a function of climate: probably the heat of Arabia intensified sexual passion and precocity, and some allowance should be made for men in perpetual heat. Moslem laws were designed to reduce temptation outside of marriage, and increase opportunity within. Premarital continence was strictly enjoined (xxiv, 33), and fasting was recommended as an aid.18 The consent of both parties was required for marriage; that agreement, duly witnessed, and sealed with a dowry from bridegroom to bride, sufficed for legal marriage, whether the parents consented or not.19 A Moslem male was allowed to marry a Jewish or Christian woman, but not an idolatress—i.e., a non-Christian polytheist. As in Judaism, celibacy was considered sinful, marriage obligatory and pleasing to God (xxiv, 32). Mohammed accepted polygamy to balance a high death rate in both sexes, the length of maternal nursing, and the early waning of reproductive powers in hot climes; but he limited the number of permitted wives to four, allowing himself a special dispensation. He forbade concubinage (lxx, 29-31), but held it preferable to marriage with an idolatress (ii, 221).
Having allowed the male so many outlets for desire, the Koran punished adultery with a hundred stripes on each sinner (xxiv, 2). But when, on flimsy grounds, Mohammed’s favorite wife, Aisha, was suspected of adultery, and gossip persistently besmirched her name, he had a trance and issued a revelation requiring four witnesses to prove adultery; moreover, “those who accuse honorable women, but bring not four witnesses, shall be scourged with eighty stripes, and their testimony shall never again be accepted” (xxiv, 4). Accusations of adultery were thereafter rare.
Divorce was permitted to the male by the Koran, as by the Talmud, on almost any ground; the wife might divorce her husband by returning her dowry to him (ii, 229). While accepting the pre-Islamic liberty of divorce for the male, Mohammed discouraged it, saying that nothing was so displeasing to God; arbiters should be appointed “one from his folk and one from hers,” and every effort made at reconciliation (iv, 35). Three successive declarations, at monthly intervals, were required to make a divorce legal; and to compel careful thought about it, the husband was not allowed to remarry his divorced wife until after she had been married and divorced by another man.20 The husband must not go in to his wife during her periods; she was not to be considered “unclean” at that time, but she must purify herself ritually before resuming cohabitation. Women are “a tilth” to man—a field to be cultivated; it is an obligation of the man to beget children. The wife should recognize the superior intelligence and therefore superior authority of the male; she must obey her husband; if she rebels he should “banish her to a bed apart, and scourge her” (iv, 34). “Every woman who dieth, and her husband is pleased with her, shall enter paradise” (iv, 35).
Here as elsewhere the legal disabilities of women barely matched the power of their eloquence, their tenderness, and their charms. Omar, the future caliph, rebuked his wife for speaking to him in a tone that he considered disrespectful. She assured him that this was the tone in which his daughter Hafsa, and the other wives of Mohammed, spoke to the Prophet of Allah. Omar went at once and remonstrated with Hafsa and another of Mohammed’s wives; he was told to mind his business, and he retired in dismay. Hearing of all this, Mohammed laughed heartily.21 Like other Moslems he quarreled now and then with his wives, but he did not cease to be fond of them, or to speak of women with becoming sentiment. “The most valuable thing in the world,” he is reported to have said, “is a virtuous woman.”22 Twice in the Koran he reminded Moslems that their mothers had carried them with pain, brought them forth with pain, nursed them for
twenty-four or thirty months.23 “Paradise,” he said, “is at the foot of the mother.”24
IV. RELIGION AND THE STATE
The greatest problems of the moralist are first to make co-operation attractive, and then to determine the size of the whole or group with which he will counsel pre-eminent co-operation. A perfect ethic would ask the paramount co-operation of every part with the greatest whole—with the universe itself, or its essential life and order, or God; on that plane religion and morality would be one. But morality is the child of custom and the grandchild of compulsion; it develops co-operation only within aggregates equipped with force. Therefore all actual morality has been group morality.
Mohammed’s ethic transcended the limits of the tribe in which he was born, but was imprisoned in the creedal group which he formed. After his victory in Mecca he restricted, but could not quite abolish, the plundering raids of tribe against tribe, and gave to all Arabia, implicitly to all Islam, a new sense of unity, a wider orbit of co-operation and loyalty. “The believers are naught else than brothers” (xlix, 10). Distinction of rank or race, so strong among the tribes, was diminished by similarity of belief. “If a negro slave is appointed to rule you, hear and obey him, though his head be like a dried grape.”25 It was a noble conception that made one people of diverse nations scattered over the continents; this is the glory of both Christianity and Islam.
But to that transcendent love, in both religions, corresponded an astringent antagonism to all who would not believe. “Take not the Jews and the Christians for friends…. Choose not your fathers nor your brothers for friends if they take pleasure in disbelief rather than in faith” (v, 51, 55; ix, 23). Mohammed interpreted these principles with some moderation. “Let there be no violence in religion. If they embrace Islam they are surely directed; but if they turn their backs, verily to thee belongs preaching only.”26 “Give a respite to the disbelievers. Deal thou gently with them for a while” (xxxvi, 17). But against Arab unbelievers who did not peaceably submit Mohammed preached the jihad or holy war, a crusade in the name of Allah. After the war with the Quraish had begun, and when the “sacred months” of truce were past, enemy unbelievers were to be killed wherever found (ix, 5). “But if any of the idolaters seeketh thy protection, then protect him that he may hear the word of Allah. … If they repent and establish worship” (accept Islam), “then leave their way free” (ix, 5-6). “Kill not the old man who cannot fight, nor young children, nor women.”27 Every able-bodied male in Islam must join in the holy war. “Lo, Allah loveth those who battle for His cause…. I swear by Allah … that marching about, morning and evening, to fight for religion is better than the world and everything in it; and verily the standing of one of you in the line of battle is better than supererogatory prayers performed in your house for sixty years.”28 This war ethic, however, is no general incitement to war. “Fight in the way of Allah against those who fight against you, but begin not hostilities. Allah loveth not aggressors” (ii, 90). Mohammed accepts the laws of war as practiced by the Christian nations of his time, and wages war against Quraish unbelievers holding Mecca precisely as Urban II would preach a crusade against Moslems holding Jerusalem.
The inevitable gap between theory and practice seems narrower in Islam than in other faiths. The Arabs were sensual, and the Koran accepted polygamy; otherwise the ethic of the Koran is as sternly puritan as Cromwell’s; only the uninformed think of Mohammedanism as a morally easy creed. The Arabs were prone to vengeance and retaliation, and the Koran made no pretense at returning good for evil. “And one who attacks you, attack him in like manner…. Whoso defendeth himself after he hath suffered wrong, there is no way” (of blame) “against them” (ii, 194; xlii, 41). It is a virile ethic, like that of the Old Testament; it stresses the masculine, as Christianity stressed the feminine, virtues. No other religion in history has so consistently tried to make men strong, or so generally succeeded. “O ye who believe! Endure! Outdo all others in endurance!” (iii, 200). Thus also spake Nietzsche’s Zarathustra.
Revered to the edge of idolatry, copied and illuminated with loving skill and care, used as the book from which the Moslem learned to read, and then again as the core and summit of his education, the Koran has for thirteen centuries filled the memory, aroused the imagination, molded the character, and perhaps chilled the intellect, of hundreds of millions of men. It gave to simple souls the simplest, least mystical, least ritualistic, of all creeds, free from idolatry and sacerdotalism. Its message raised the moral and cultural level of its followers, promoted social order and unity, inculcated hygiene, lessened superstition and cruelty, bettered the condition of slaves, lifted the lowly to dignity and pride, and produced among Moslems (barring the revels of some caliphs) a degree of sobriety and temperance unequaled elsewhere in the white man’s world. It gave men an uncomplaining acceptance of the hardships and limitations of life, and at the same time stimulated them to the most astonishing expansion in history. And it defined religion in terms that any orthodox Christian or Jew might accept:
Righteousness is not that ye turn your faces to the East or to the West, but righteousness is this: whosoever believeth in God, and the Last Day, and the angels, and the Book, and the Prophets; and whosoever, for the love of God, giveth of his wealth unto his kindred, unto orphans, and the poor, and the wayfarer, and to the beggar, and for the release of captives; and whoso observeth prayer … and, when they have covenanted, fulfill their covenant; and who are patient in adversity and hardship and in the times of violence: these are the righteous, these are they who believe in the Lord! (ii, 177).
V. THE SOURCES OF THE KORAN
As the style of the Koran is modeled on that of the Hebrew prophets, so its contents are largely an adaptation of Judaic doctrines, tales, and themes. The Koran, which excoriates the Jews, is the sincerest flattery they have ever received. Its basic ideas—monotheism, prophecy, faith, repentance, the Last Judgment, heaven and hell—seem Jewish in proximate origin, even in form and dress. It deviated from Judaism chiefly in insisting that the Messiah had come. Mohammed frankly reports contemporary accusations that his revelations were “nothing but a fraud which he hath fabricated, and other people have helped him therein,… dictating to him morning and evening” (xxv, 5; xvi, 105). He generously accepts the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures as divinely revealed (iii, 48). God has given man 104 revelations, of which only four have been preserved—the Pentateuch to Moses, the Psalms to David, the Gospel to Jesus, the Koran to Mohammed; whoso rejects any one of these is, in Mohammed’s view, an infidel. But the first three have suffered such corruption that they can no longer be trusted; and the Koran now replaces them.29 There have been many inspired prophets—e.g., Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Enoch, Christ, but last and greatest, Mohammed. From Adam to Christ Mohammed accepts all the narratives of the Bible, but occasionally amends them to save the divine honor; so God did not really let Jesus die on the cross (iv, 157). The Prophet alleges the agreement of the Koran with the Bible as proof of his divine mission, and interprets various Biblical passages30 as predicting his own birth and apostolate.
From the Creation to the Last Judgment he uses Jewish ideas. Allah is Yahveh; Allah is a contraction of al-llah, an old Kaaba god; a kindred word was used in various forms in divers Semitic languages to express divinity; so the Jews used Elohim, and Christ on the cross appealed to Eli. Both Allah and Yahveh are gods of compassion, but they are also stern and warlike deities, capable of many human passions, and resolved to have no other god besides them. The Shema’ Yisrael of the Jewish ritual, affirming the unity of God, is repeated in the first article of Moslem belief—“There is no god but Allah.” The Koranic refrain that Allah is “gracious and compassionate” echoes the same frequent phrase in the Talmud.31 The designation of Allah as Rahman, the merciful, recalls the rabbinical use of Rahmana for Yahveh in the Talmudic age.32 The Talmud loves to say, “The Holy One, Blessed be He”; Moslem literature follows with the oft-repeated words, “Allah” (or “Mohammed”), “Ble
ssed be He.” Apparently the Jews who acquainted the Prophet with the Bible also gave him snatches of the Talmud; a hundred passages in the Koran echo the Mishna and the Gemaras.33 The teachings of the Koran about angels, the resurrection, and heaven follow the Talmud rather than the Old Testament. Stories that make up a fourth of the Koran can be traced to haggadic (illustrative) elements in the Talmud.34 Where the Koran narratives vary from the Biblical accounts (as in the story of Joseph) they usually accord with variations already existing in the haggadic literature of the pre-Moslem Jews.35
