by Jon E. Lewis
The swimming action should help to clear an air space, which you must achieve as the avalanche comes to rest, and the snow resets. Remain as calm as you can; there is little point in wasting energy if you are trapped under the surface, where no-one will hear you.
1 If you get caught at the side of an avalanche, dig outwards – it’s easier.
2 Make an airspace around your nose and mouth, but keep your mouth shut. In a powder avalanche, try to get a cloth over your nose to act as a filter.
3 Determine which way is up and down – perhaps by dribbling.
4 Start digging your way out before the avalanche has time to settle and freeze into position.
5 If you’re covered in powder snow, try a swimming motion. Backstroke is the most effective.
Rescue
If attempting a rescue, you must start a systematic search immediately, in two phases. Post a sentry to watch for new avalanches, and send for help immediately. Organise a helicopter landing site close by, to which the rescue services can fly; this will often be the only way in.
Your buried person is likely to be somewhere in a vertical line from the point of disappearance to the bottom of the slope. The first phase of the search is a “coarse” one; starting at the bottom, with a man every half metre, using avalanche search poles or ski sticks to probe the snow every 30 cms. Maintain a tight pattern on the search line and probe delicately so that you do not injure the lost person. If you touch something soft, dig. Mark the area as you search it.
Specially trained search dogs are available in most countries where avalanche risk is high, and they are invaluable. Ideally they should search the slope prior to any other human interference, but this will not always be possible as time is important; however, clear the slope of human searchers as soon as dogs become available.
Modern technology has also provided personal radio transponders and seekers. They are generally only available to troops who are at high risk, such as reconnaissance units, who work in small groups high in the mountains. The beacon works by sending a radio “bleep” every second. Everyones transponder is switched to “send” at the start of the patrol. If anyone gets lost, all beacons are switched off except one or two that are switched to “receive”.
Searchers then systematically quarter the site of the avalanche looking for the strongest signal, which strengthens as they get close to their target. At the location of the strongest signal, dig.
An injured man should be treated as for shock; make sure his airways are free, keep him warm and give him a warm drink. An unconscious man will need artificial resuscitation, and look out for other injuries that may not be obvious.
TRANSPORT
HELICOPTERS
Helicopters are an invaluable asset, speeding movement over the inhospitable terrain, often where no roads or track communications exist. They can undertake a wide range of roles and jobs – the ferrying of men and supplies, forward and flank reconnaissance, fire direction, liaison, casevac and if necessary, armed action. The main types used in the Arctic are the Puma, Sea King, Lynx and Gazelle; the USA uses the CH-53.
Helicopter operations are not easy at the best of times, and in the Arctic can be highly dangerous. Pilots, ground crew and the troops that are to be carried all need considerable training.
The biggest enemy of course, is the weather, affecting every aspect from flying to maintenance. For example, the helicopter will need “pre-heating” before flying, which means blowing warm air into the engine and body from hot air generators. When flying visibility is crucial, and “white-out” conditions where no depth or landmark can be seen by the pilot will curtail an operation. Another danger is icing up, caused by being caught in freezing rain or sleet.
All landing sites should, where possible, be flattened by an oversnow vehicle to create a hard landing pad. This avoids snow being churned around by the blades, which is hazardous to the aircraft and to everyone on the ground; the pilot can lose his bearings and high speed whirling air can cause frostbite within minutes.
To overcome the visibility problem, mark the landing site with a black, snow-filled plastic bag or with coloured smoke which stains the snow. If no markers are available, a marshaller will have to lie down to provide a marker. To avoid frostbite everyone on the ground must wear full protective clothing and masks, particularly the ground crew.
Maintenance
Maintenance is very difficult in cold temperatures, particularly at below –15°C, where skin sticks to metal. Heat is essential and is provided by a portable air generator inside a tent, or in the case of larger helicopters, a large cover such as a parachute. Fluid leaks are frequent as seals can contract and crack with the cold, so ground crew must be particularly alert.
Emplaning and deplaning
Drills for embarking and disembarking must be practised. Take great care to avoid damaging the helicopter with the large quantities of heavy, cumbersome equipment, such as skis and sticks that must be manhandled in difficult circumstances. In the Arctic, the technique is that the helicopter will land almost on top of you; your section will lie beside or on its equipment, acting as a marker, and the pilot will put down beside you. The section then emplanes through one door, equipment going in last. You strap in and raise your right arm to indicate to the loadmaster that you are secure; the helicopter then takes off.
When deplaning, Bergens and men are offloaded through both doors, but the pulk and skis always go through the starboard (right) door. Troops should adopt fire positions until the aircraft is clear, and they then go to cover, where reorganisation and ski fitting takes place.
SNOW SCOOTERS
Most forces who operate in the Arctic make use of snow scooters as a means of easing travel in the snow covered terrain. In the military context, snow scooters have their plus and minus sides. They can carry out a variety of roles:
1 Liaison and communications (dispatches)
2 Casevac
3 Line-laying
4 Ammunition resupply
5 Route recce and deep patrols
6 Weapons deployment – off route, eg anti-tank weapons.
However, they do have a number of major disadvantages. Firstly, they are difficult to drive without considerable training and experience. Secondly, their engines are temperamental, although the modern machines are much more reliable and robust; they need constant maintenance, which may be difficult if deployed forward of their own troops. Thirdly, they need a reasonable amount of snow in which to operate successfully, so route planning is just as important as when moving vehicle-borne or ski troops to a target. They suffer high wear on open roads and off snow they are difficult to manoeuvre. A wheel can be attached to or in place of the front ski for road use.
Snow scooters are not particularly fast, but have powerful engines and a wide range of low gears to cope with snow, particularly heavy wet snow, which tends to clog the driving belts. The heavier machines, the “workhorses” have twin tracks which give them greater grip and thrust through all types of snow and allow them to pull large loads.
Driving a snow scooter demands skill, which you often have to learn the hard way! The trick is to counterbalance the machine in the traverse – it will always try to slide down the slope, turning over on you if it can. Leaning into the slope while driving across it is physically and mentally demanding and takes confidence to master, particularly when pulling a fully laden sledge, but it is exhilarating and fun, and once mastered will allow you to use snow scooters as a significant contributions to Arctic operations.
ARCTIC COMBAT
Combat in the Arctic is probably the most challenging of all military skills. It is the soldier, either as an individual or as a team, against the cruellest climate in the world; a climate with no sympathy for men or machines. It requires constant practice, and minute attention to planning and detail, because if things go wrong there may be no way out. Arctic warfare demands the highest of conventional military ability, plus a whole range of extra skills.
CA
RE OF EQUIPMENT
We will start by looking at the basics. You will have to learn to look after your equipment and pay special attention to the range of spares that you must carry. Because of the intense cold, equipment tends to be more brittle and may break more easily, and the harsh terrain also takes its toll. Among the most essential items that should be carried by each section are spare ski binding straps, poles and mittens together with emergency ski tips.
Weapons
Your weapons also require special attention. Some of the main problems that you may encounter when shooting are:
1 Working parts break more easily at low temperatures.
2 Ice may form on working parts after firing
3 Ammunition lethality is reduced and it may become fouled by ice or snow.
4 Your hands are less effective when wearing bulky mittens.
5 Weapons need a firm base to fire.
6 Fog that forms during firing may interfere with the optical sights.
The above problems can be overcome with maintenance becoming second nature. The muzzles of all weapons require a cover to prevent snow from entering the barrel and firing mechanism. Use light oil (normally a mixture of oil and naptha/petrol) to lubricate, but if this is not available, just dry clean your weapons. To overcome sweating and thus freezing, leave your weapons outside your tent sheet. Make a weapon rack and cover it if possible, but always remember to brush off any snow when picking up weapons. If the temperature is above freezing, the weapons can be put in the tent.
During pauses in firing you may find that the ammunition freezes in the barrel. To overcome this, work the bolt/cocking handle every few minutes until there is no possibility of freezing. This is painstaking work and could take up to an hour, but is well worth it. Ice fog which forms around automatic weapons during high rates of fire may force you to fire at a reduced rate. Alternative firing positions should be considered if possible. Also take care of your ammunition, keep it in its liner, remove any oil and avoid getting snow on it.
Always ensure that your mittens are dry. If your mittens are wet when throwing a grenade, it may freeze to them – think of the effect of that if you had pulled the pin! Another useful trick to prevent the grenade sinking in the snow is to tie it to crossed sticks or a board. It will then explode near the surface and have a much better effect. Remember that all your weapons will sink in soft snow and it will be difficult to attain muzzle clearance. You must put “feet” on your machine gun bipods, light mortars, etc, and there are special techniques for rifle shooting using ski sticks to prevent your elbows from sinking into the snow. You can use snowshoes on the bipods but most light machine guns are specially equipped in Arctic trained units. Light mortars require a steel plate placed on the compacted snow, which the unit LAD (Light Aid Detachment) will make.
Radios
Radios and batteries should be looked after, particularly batteries. These lose their power in half the time in Arctic conditions sometimes even quicker. So if a battery is not in use make sure that it is on charge or in a warm place – which may have to be inside your smock if you’re on the move.
IMPORTANT ARCTIC WARFARE KIT
Kit to be kept in your pocket
First field dressing; earplugs; lipsalve; plastic spoon; snow goggles; plastic whistle on lanyard; survival/Silva compass; hat ECW; headover; toe covers; snowbrush; wristlets; contact gloves; survival bag (if bivi bag not issued); survival ration pack; Arctic mittens (if not worn); safety pins; ski scraper/waxes; M&AW safety guide; notebook & pencil; map and torch (remember to keep this warm).
Kit to be kept in your patrol pack
Wind proof trousers; Thermos flask; tent sheet; reversible-waterproof or Gore-Tex suit; jacket and trousers (“Chinese Fighting Suit”); shovel; 24 hour ration pack; snow shoes; No 6 cooker (one between two); fuel and matches; steel mug.
Belt order
Right/left pouch; rifle magazines; rifle cleaning kit (REK); bayonet; snowbrush (if not in smock); waterbottle pouch; emergency rations; string; candle; waterproof matches; steel mug; No 6 cooker and fuel (if not all in patrol pack).
Other items on belt
Avalanche cord (10 metres); survival knife (Gollock); rope and karabiner; bivi bag.
Individual camouflage
Camouflage starts with the individual and good use of a mixture of DPM and white overalls is important. For example if you are working in a forest a DPM suit is probably most suitable, whereas near the treeline/snowline a white jacket or white trousers may be worn. Above the snowline use the full white suit. Weapons and webbing must be camouflaged using white tape and special helmet and Bergen covers in white are available. Adjust your camouflage to suit your background, and use cover such as hollows, broken ground, trees and birch scrub as normal.
Movement is often the great giveaway, as it is very difficult to camouflage ski and vehicle tracks. Where possible use the shape of the terrain, moving in hollows and shadows. Tracks should run under trees if possible and sharp edges that might cast shadows in bright sunlight should be broken up by the last man or vehicle dragging a small pine tree along the track. In a camp where digging is necessary, remove snow from under the trees and throw it onto the tracks. This may deceive air recce but not ground patrols, although it all adds up to making it as difficult as possible for the enemy to spot you.
The disruption of sharp edges also applies to field defences, the entrances to tents and the tents themselves. Field defences should have rounded edges, smoothed to blend in with the shape of the ground. Fill in the bottom of trenches with snow to prevent black earth showing and remember that tracks within the position will need filling and smoothing daily. Pitch tents under trees, or if this is not possible, dig them in and camouflage with white nets or parachutes. Use track plans and discipline, particularly in camps, and try to set a series of deception tracks away from your position. Construct “dummy” positions using spare tents to draw enemy fire and deceive the enemy about your strength.
Mountains
Mountains often contain vast tracts of open, unbroken snow fields, but the lower slopes are generally covered in pine and dense birch scrub. No amount of snow can fill all hollows or conceal all rock and scree, so natural cover does not exist. You will have to use deception extensively and reduce noise to a minimum, as sound travels over long distances in still air. There is also the problem of human-induced fogs of vehicle exhausts and cooking fires, as warm, damp air condenses in the cold conditions.
ARCTIC CAMP
We will now look at how the above techniques can be applied to set up an Arctic camp. Whatever the size of the camp, whether a patrol camp or a major formation base, the principles for setting it up are the same. Select the site carefully, considering concealment defence, routines and administration.
Initially you will set off with your recce party, which runs one or two hours ahead of the main body. The recce party will contain 2ICs and guides from all your sub units. What will you be looking for? A map study may have produced some likely areas to look at; you need an easily defendable area with good concealment, good snow cover for digging in and with the possibility of good administration. The position should avoid low-lying ground, which is likely to be on a marsh and may get very cold. Try to find a piece of forested high ground, or ground that is broken up with good fields of fire, limited access points or access routes which can be dominated by outposts. As far as administration is concerned you will probably have to consider fresh water, covered vehicle access from main routes, and helicopter landing sites.
Having made your selection, mark out the camp and brief your commanders and guides on areas, defensive work, sentry posts, arcs of fire, stand-to positions, track plans, areas for cutting brush-wood, latrines and a host of other measures.
The deception plan
Then consider your deception plan, which may require the assistance of your main body. You will require a false trail beyond the camp area, and possibly a “dummy” camp using spare tents. Vehicles ma
y have to be used to produce long fake trails, creating confusing and large-scale defensive track plans.
The “jump off”
For small units without vehicles the entry track to the camp will be a “jump off” from the ski trail. A professional enemy may be able to detect the change in the track, and it is possible to tell from a ski trail how many men actually passed along it and in which direction by examining the number and angle of the ski pole plants in the snow and their compactness. The idea of a “jump off” is that the patrol halts, but the lead skier or skiers lay a false trail beyond the “jump off”. While they do this the remainder of the patrol leaves the main track often through a thicket or where the snow is broken. The skiers laying the false trail then return to the “jump off”, camouflage it (it may be disguised as a fallen man, and many similar dummy “jump offs” will have been laid previously) and then rejoin the rest of the patrol. The job may of course be done by the main body, depending on the number of men you have and your SOPs.
Camp discipline
When the main body arrives at the camp, the sub-unit commanders are briefed, and work begins with the minimum of noise and disturbance to the snow. A track plan is established and should be used by everyone. Vehicles are tucked under trees and camouflaged; slit trenches are dug; tents and shelters are put up; weapon racks are built; and food and drink are prepared. At last light, patrols depart to lay mines and trip flares and to establish listening posts beyond the perimeter on likely enemy approaches. Each tent group has a man on sentry duty, connected to the tent group commander by a vine or string to ensure a silent call-out. Sentries are changed every hour, and in extremely cold weather as often as every 20 minutes. The camp then settles into night routine, which includes minimum movement (except for sentry changes and patrols leaving the camp), no lights and minimum sound – radios are on mute, but vehicles may have to be run occasionally to keep them warm and their batteries charged.
