by Jon E. Lewis
MOBILITY
Mobility is the key to successful Arctic operations. A thorough understanding of the capabilities of your vehicles and the techniques needed to overcome the problems you may encounter is vital to effective movement.
A variety of over-snow tracked vehicles is available to help you move around the difficult terrain of the Arctic. Two such vehicles are the BV 202 and BV 206. The latter vehicle is relatively new, whereas the BV 202 has been in service for over 20 years. The infantry, engineers and artillery generally have one of these vehicles per section, but fewer in logistic units. The 206 can carry everything that is needed by a section, including all the men, but the 202 can only carry the section kit, although it will pull sledges and troops.
Skijoring
The technique of pulling troops is called “skijoring” and requires a lot of skill to master. In skijoring, two 50 metre ropes are attached to the back of the vehicle at each corner. The troops attach themselves to the outside of the rope by twisting their ski sticks into it; the weight on the rope ensures that the ski sticks stay in place, and troops just hold on and are towed along. A “guard” sits in the rear of the vehicle to make sure that the vehicle stops if any men fall, using a buzzer to communicate with the driver.
Once the technique is mastered troops can be moved very quickly with little exhaustion. But the reverse is true if the terrain and going are poor and can result in chaos; you must decide carefully, when to skijore or whether it would be quicker to ski. Broken birch country and forests are very difficult to skijore, but open snow fields above the treeline are ideal and you can cover up to 15 kilometres per hour.
Moving at speed through cold air can cause wind chill and frostbite and orders of dress must be given. You should normally wear the Arctic hat, with flaps down, a face mask and toe covers. Halts may have to be taken as frequently as every 20 minutes to allow blood circulation to be restored to reduce the risk of frostbite.
Vehicle mobility
The most likely problems you will come across are navigating, traversing a slope, ravines, ice crossings, rivers and icy roads as well as heavily-laden vehicles becoming bogged down on steep inclines. Route planning and preparation require a great deal of time, and large numbers of troops may have to be used for route construction and maintenance work.
To overcome some of the problems faced by vehicles you will have to learn a number of tricks. To traverse a steep hillside, dig a road to avoid shedding tracks or overturning. If you become bogged down, anchor your skijoring ropes to a tree and the other ends to the vehicle tracks; then simply drive out as the ropes wrap themselves around the tracks. Use this technique to maintain grip when heavily-laden vehicles slip on icy mountainous roads. Winching is another option, and many vehicles are now fitted with efficient winches that can be used with “A” frames to solve most problems. (Another tip; if your Land Rover loses a back wheel, stick a stout log under the mud-guard into the suspension unit until you reach safety; the end of the log simply slides on the ice-packed road.)
Crossing rivers
If your route involves crossing a lake or ice-covered river, an ice recce must be done. This involves drilling holes in the ice with an auger and measuring the thickness. Do this over the entire length of the crossing at 10–15 metre intervals and at smaller intervals if you think the ice may be rotten or unsupported. Sometimes you will find layers of water between the ice – beware, the load bearing capabilities are considerably weakened.
Make sure that crossing points avoid the inflow and outflow points on rivers and lakes. Lakes behind hydro-dams are particularly dangerous as the water level falls in winter leaving an enormous gap between the ice and water – sometimes up to 20 metres. You won’t recover a man or vehicle if they go through the ice in these conditions.
Vision
Low light, flat light, or white-out blizzard conditions may also occur when drivers will be unable to distinguish the type of terrain, any obstacles or direction, even on a marked route. The main problem is that the driver has nothing to focus on, and no depth of vision. This is very dangerous as he may drive over a cliff. The only solution is for two skiers to go ahead of the vehicle and act as reference points so that he can judge the rise and fall of the land; they will also navigate for him. If the conditions are really bad the skiers should be changed every 20 minutes to stop them freezing.
NAVIGATION
The ability to navigate accurately in the Arctic is vital. It saves time and energy, and poor navigation could lead to death. The principles of navigation are the same as those in a temperate climate, but there are more problems; snow changes the shape and nature of the terrain and it is much more difficult to relate the map to the ground. Add to this white-out conditions, when it is impossible to judge relief and distance and freezing conditions, when it is difficult to handle both map and compass, and you can see the problems. It is also difficult to pace distance accurately, particularly on skis, so you must rely on obvious features – easier said than found!
The following techniques will help you. First select your route carefully from a map. This is vital to avoid obstacles such as steep ravines and slopes, forests and open water. Study the contours in detail as you draw in your route, trying to ensure gentle gradients.
En route, try to navigate parallel to a major feature or aim at a marker. For example, a river bed on a flank will act as a guide; or navigate towards a fixed feature such as a hut, tree or rocks. You can use a star for short periods (20 minutes), but remember that these move. If you are navigating towards a fixed feature, eg a hut on a road, aim to the right or left of the hut by a few miles. Then when you reach the road you know you are on one side or the other of your objective.
Distance is probably the most difficult element to judge, particularly in white-out or at night, and on skis. Use the mileometer in your vehicle, or for more accurate measurement use two men tied together with a piece of rope of a known length (eg 50 or 100 metres). One man acts as anchor while the other skis forward to the rope’s limit, then they swop roles and the anchor man skis past the skier. The distance is calculated by counting the number of rope lengths. This method is time consuming but can be vital in poor conditions.
If you are caught out without a map and compass, you can navigate using the position of the sun and your watch. At 12.00 noon you will have a rough indication of north as shown above. You can then prepare a rough sketch map to hit a large feature eg a road by relating the map to the position of the sun.
Being lost can be very worrying, but don’t let it affect your reasoning. Using a map and compass, select a linear feature and march on a compass bearing towards it – you should eventually hit it. Without a map and compass things are more difficult, and you will have to use your memory, your watch (if you have one) and try to relate your route to a linear feature. Make use of the sun (if it is up) or the North Star at night (this does not move). Draw a diagram on paper or in the snow, noting the position you want to get to, any roads or linear features, and the position of the sun at various times of the day, remembering that it rises in the east and sets in the west. Try to put in a north pointer. Then march in the direction you require, keeping your direction relative to that of the sun (at that time of the day) or to the North Star at night. It is not very accurate but that is not the point; you are aiming to hit a large feature and then refine your route from there, so trust your plan. If the conditions are not good, you may have to consider going into a survival situation with shelter, warmth and food.
Ice bridges
The requirements for suitable locations for ice bridges and methods for testing the quality of the ice using an ice auger were discussed earlier. In addition, avoid places with a fast inflow or outflow, bends in rivers which accelerate the flow, and areas where banks are difficult to prepare.
Having made a sensible choice, you will still encounter problems throughout the crossing. The underside of the ice may melt and scour as the weather conditions change, and cracks will
occur; cracks which are parallel to the direction of travel are the most dangerous, those at right angles less so. Cracks can be repaired by filling them with hay and straw and then pumping water onto the surface which freezes layer by layer. This is the principle for reinforcing any crossing that is deteriorating, but timber planks, steel mesh, trackway, hessian, brushwood and other materials can all be frozen onto the surface as reinforcement. The idea is to spread the load as widely as possible. This requires a great deal of effort and if the temperature is in the region of –10°C it is more economical to pump on layers of water to build up the depth of the ice.
Find a slow-flowing straight section of river away from any previous crossing sites and put out protection parties to cover the work party. Prepare and reinforce the banks and mark out a suitable block from the upstream bank. Once cut, using ice saws, the bridge can be floated into position using ice pitons and mooring lines. The bridge may weigh several tons and simple pulleys can be used to manoeuvre it. Once in position the bridge can be cemented in place by pumping water on to reinforcing material at the edges.
Approaches to bridges will also deteriorate as the ice tends to be thinner at the banks. The bank and bridge should be reinforced with timber and frozen snow to form a base for an “approach” bridge on to the ice. This relieves the load on the ice near the bank and maintains safe entry onto the main bridge. If there is open water between suitable ice banks you can cut a large section of ice and float it into position to bridge the gap. The ice should be good quality and of considerable depth – about 40–50 centimetres initially – and with temperatures below –10°C it can be reinforced like a standard ice bridge if it is needed for any length of time.
The most robust type of bridge is one that fits into notches cut into both banks. The notches should be cut with standard power saws and must be at least 20ft deep, so that the bridge can freeze into place or can be reinforced if it does not fit exactly. Lines attached through holes in the ice and toggled underneath are used to control the bridge as it is put into position. If the ice breaks, this technique can be used to make repairs, as the ice will quickly refreeze at low temperatures. Angle iron pitons can be used instead of toggle ropes, but these are not always readily available.
“Skewed” bridge
The previous type of bridge is probably the most stable but it is time-consuming to make. A “skewed” bridge can be used as an alternative. The principles of its construction are the same, but the anchorage is less secure. The bridge has rounded ends which rest on both banks, which are again anchored by either toggled ropes or pitons. In the same way an ice ferry (an ice floe) can be constructed to move light loads; the load bearing/floatation capacity can be worked out using a simple calculation. The ferry is hauled, using a hand or vehicle winch, across the gap collecting and delivering its load.
Remember, ice is dangerous. To use it requires a great deal of study and understanding, which is built up by many years of experience. Ice recce is extremely time-consuming because the ice engineer cannot afford to make mistakes; but ice is one of nature’s phenomena that can be used to great advantage to speed up mobility in the Arctic.
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
In spite of the hostility of the terrain and climate in the Arctic, there is still a requirement for the specialist skills provided by the special forces. Troops who are specially equipped and trained in deep penetration behind enemy lines are often employed but very careful logistic planning and subsequent mission supervision is required for success. Like other troops, special forces will need acclimatization and they should also have the experience to operate independently. Most northern armies maintain such forces, some are assigned to land operations and others to operations at sea.
Soldiering in the Arctic requires determination, skill, and a great deal of hard work. Troops will be delivered to the target by boat, submarine, parachute or helicopter, followed by a long, hard ski march. Some armies use snow scooters, but these are only suitable if the terrain is reasonably flat. Most movement will be at night, and if a large unit is required to reach the target, infiltration tactics will be required. An individual’s skiing ability and fitness must be exceptional and accurate navigation and survival skills are required.
Most special forces will be involved in strategic tasks. These encompass simple observation and reporting, target reconnaissance and attack, sabotage, ambush on lines of communication and beach reconnaissance, which is vital for successful amphibious landings.
Raids and ambushes
A typical raid by a Scandinavian special forces unit is preplanned, with many small units infiltrating from temporary lying-up positions to the main RV in order to mount the operation. A classic ambush is to attack a convoy on a route, using “stand-off attack” tactics to reduce casualties to their own men and making follow-up more difficult. The unit will covertly dig in about 150 metres from the route, and camouflage their position from both ground and air. The positions are well equipped as troops are likely to occupy them for considerable periods of time. Any tracks into the area should also be camouflaged and any likely follow-up routes booby-trapped and mined.
Remote control
A wide range of remotely-fired devices should be positioned in the main killing area to deal with armour, soft-skinned vehicles and personnel. The ambush may be initiated by blowing two culverts with improvised changes at each end of the convoy.
Anti-tank weapons of the LAW type or AT 64 are strapped between two posts or a tree and a post, and are aimed at a marker on the far side of the killing area. The firing mechanism is simply operated by a piece of string, attached to a piece of wood to give sufficient leverage to the trigger when the string is pulled and the rocket fired.
Various types of mine are also sown for both defensive and offensive use. The defensive mines will largely be anti-personnel, and there are two main offensive directional mines; firstly the well known Claymore type mine (No 13) which fires a large number of ball-bearings into a fixed killing area – ideal for soft-skinned vehicles and troops; and, secondly, the anti-vehicle mine, which will damage and immobilize most vehicles. If the killing area is properly mined and booby-trapped there would be little requirement for supporting fire from the main position. Once the ambush is over, a rapid withdrawal is undertaken through the usual RV’s.
Attacking a railroad
To achieve the best effect when attacking a railroad both a train and a line should be destroyed together. In order to cause even more disruption and to delay the recovery of the train and repair to the line, the area around the ambush site should be booby-trapped.
The most suitable places to launch an attack are embankments or defiles or where the train is likely to be travelling at high speeds. The area should be ideally be covered by forest or brushwood, but the line should be visible from 100–150 metres. A further obstacle between the line and the firing position would also provide additional cover.
The mines are dug in under the rails into the track bed which may require the use of hammers and chisels if the ground is solid rock. The mines are then linked together with a detonating cord and a fuse is run back to the remote firing point, the base of a tree ideally, where it terminates in a firing cap pull switch. This in turn is attached to a pull cord. Great care must be taken to bury the mine and fuse and to camouflage any disturbances to the ground. Sometimes snow will have to be collected from an area well away from the line and used to fill any holes produced in laying the device.
Remember to position sentries linked by radio, well out to the flanks (400+ metres). The line may be patrolled or an unexpected train may use the line, and you must have early warning so that you can return to cover. Initiation is by pull which is followed by immediate withdrawal along a pre-planned route using the usual anti-tracking and anti-follow-up tactics.
As can be seen, special forces have their place in the Arctic, and they can have an effect which far outweighs the effort and resources committed to the tasks. It is vital, however, that
any such operation is properly prepared and mounted, otherwise it will end in disaster and no more so than in the Arctic.
Chapter 5
DESERT ENVIRONMENTS
DESERT SURVIVAL
The very word “desert” conjures up images of shimmering sand dunes and oases of refreshing sweet, blue water surrounded by vivid green palm trees – but in deserts like the Sahara reality is very different. Only 17 per cent of the Sahara’s 3.5 million square miles consists of sand dunes. The rest is a mixture of broken plateaux, weird rock formations, endless gravel, dust plains and arid mountains. The Sahara, from the Arab word meaning “empty place”, is truly vast. Solitude and loneliness, coupled with fear, become a real test of your character and will to survive in this intimidating place.
BASIC RULES
If you’re not acclimatized to the desert be extremely cautious during the critical first three or four days of working in summer heat. Sweating washes salts and other minerals out of the body, so make it your business to increase your water and salt intake to compensate.
Avoid salt tablets – they can cause damage to your stomach lining by lying undissolved against the stomach wall. Simple table salt taken with water is adequate. A guide to how much salt you need is taste. If the salt seems to have little or no flavour, increase your intake until it tastes normal.
Diarrhoea is doubly serious. While you suffer, fluids and essential salts tend to pass unused through the body. Cooling fluids fail to reach the skin surface in the form of sweat, your body thermostat fails and you’ll have heat illness as well. Serious sunburn also damages the sweat ducts and so stops the skin surface cooling.
