The name Dracaena comes from the Greek drakainia meaning female dragon. In the first century AD, a Greek sailor records an island called Dioscorida, probably the island of Socotra in Yemen, where dragons lived and trees shed drops of cinnabar. Pliny recounts a legend from India about Brahma and Shiva, in which a dragon bites an elephant and drinks its blood. As the elephant dies, it falls on the dragon, crushing it, and from the intermingling blood springs the dragon’s blood tree.
In the Middle Ages, this very costly resin was brought by merchants to the Mediterranean and sold right across Europe. It was believed to have all kinds of healing properties and was considered to have particular potency in alchemy. In later centuries, it was used most commonly as a dye, particularly to stain the wood used to make violins.
There are three grades of dragon’s blood resin. The best and most expensive is Edah amsellah – meaning tears. The medium grade is Edah dukkah – fragments of tears. Edah mukdehah – resin-dust and bark melted together into blocks – is the most inferior grade.
Firkin – a wooden barrel or a measure of liquid such as ale. A firkin was nine gallons.
Galbanum – is an aromatic gum resin collected mainly from a Persian plant species, Ferula gummosa, which grows in the mountain ranges of northern Iran. The resin is translucent and brown, yellow or greenish-yellow. It has a bitter taste and an intense musky scent. It is mentioned in the Book of Exodus as an ingredient in Ketoret, the consecrated incense used in the Temple. Both Hippocrates and Pliny used it medicinally, claiming that a single touch from it could kill a serpent.
Goat-leaf – Lonicera caprifolium, otherwise known as goat-leaf honeysuckle, Italian honeysuckle or perfoliate woodbine, not to be confused with English honeysuckle, Lonicera periclymenum. Goat-leaf is native to Europe. Since ancient Roman times the seeds have been ground to make ink, and the leaves, which have antibiotic properties, were used to treat sore throats and abscesses. The leaves, fruits and seeds were also employed as a strong laxative or emetic, but since the fruits are poisonous, goat-leaf is rarely used today in Western herbal medicine though it is found as an ingredient in some traditional Chinese medicine.
Limier (French), limer or lymer (English) – were hounds used to locate quarry for the hunt. A good limier is not distracted by other scents and can track silently to avoid alerting the quarry. They would track on a long leash, usually in pairs, with the handler, known as the valet de limier, following on foot. When they had harboured (found) the quarry, the huntsmen would release the running hounds, or raches, to bring it to bay. A limier was a more valuable hound than a rache, so it did not take part in the kill for fear it might get injured, but it would be rewarded with some of the raw meat to keep it keen. Bloodhounds, or their forerunners, were favourites for use as limiers, but other breeds were also used.
Lugh – also written as Lugus, was the semi-divine Celtic warrior ‘of all skills’. He gave his name to the city of Lugodunum (Lyon) in Gaul. His name is often translated as ‘raven’ because of the bird’s association with battlefields, and Lugh’s animal symbols are the raven and the lynx. The raven would bring him warnings of danger and of enemies approaching. In Celtic mythology, Lugh’s raven is also associated with power, prophecy and retribution.
Lugh was celebrated at the summer feast of Lughnasad, meaning the Assembly of Lugh, to ensure good harvests. In order to reign, Lugh had first to kill his grandfather Baal, whose feast, Beltane, is in May. Lugh traditionally kills Baal with a stone hurled from a sling, which knocks his only eye out through the back of his head. Lughnasad later became the Christian festival of Lammas, or loaf-mass, the day harvesting began, and the loaf baked from the first sheaf of grain to be cut was brought to the church. Even today, bread shaped like a wheat-sheaf is still often used as the centrepiece in harvest festivals in churches.
Metheglin – an alcoholic beverage that was popular in Anglo-Saxon times. Like mead, it was made by fermenting honey and water, but metheglin was flavoured with herbs. In winter it was often served warm, which made a soothing drink against the cold. It gradually went out of fashion in the Middle Ages, though was still drunk in country areas, especially in households that kept their own beehives.
Moon plants – in the Middle Ages it was believed that dew was the sap from the moon that fell on the earth. Several plants were linked to the moon and were used in magic to aid lucid-dreaming and for divination. These included the moon poppy, which was pale pink, or the white marsh poppy, which had hallucinogenic properties. Another moon plant is lunarie, or Lunaria biennis, better known these days as honesty. The generic name Lunaria comes from luna meaning moon, because of the papery, silver-white discs that form its seedpods. The third moon plant mentioned in the novel is moonwort, a fern credited with having great magical powers, including the ability to open locks, draw out nails and pull the iron shoes off horses’ hoofs if they accidentally stood on the fern. It was also thought to have the power to change mercury into silver.
None – during the course of the monastic day, a series of offices were sung at specific times and people labouring in the fields or workshops would have marked the passing of the hours by hearing the bells ring out, summoning monks and nuns to the prayers. The times of the services varied between different orders of monks and between winter (mid-September to Easter) and summer.
The typical monastic day began at midnight with the Nocturns, that is Matins and Lauds, followed by Prime at daybreak. Terce succeeded the morning Mass, which was conducted after breakfast, with Sext at noon. None took place about three o’clock, then Vespers at six, and finally Compline, after which the monks would be sprinkled with holy water as they processed out to go to their dorter to sleep, which would be around seven thirty p.m. in winter and eight thirty in summer.
Many laws governing the laity were linked to these offices. For example, it was illegal for the poor to go out gleaning in the fields before the Prime bell had rung.
Pipkin – a small earthenware pot used for cooking, which in poorer households could be transferred straight to the table for everyone to dig their spoons into.
Prepositus – means leading man. These men were employed by a lord or bishop to oversee and manage their properties, which might include lands, manors, castles, villages or towns. They also presided over the local courts. In Anglo-Saxon times they were known as reeves, but after the Norman Conquest they were given the Latin title prepositus. The term ballivus was also used in towns, suggesting they had authority over an area or bailiwick. In English ballivus became bailiff, which was the title most ordinary townsfolk would have used for them. Eventually the bailiff was replaced with an elected mayor.
Raven’s head – otherwise known as caput mortuum, was the alchemical symbol of nigredo, the black death and putrefaction. The bird’s head is often depicted either floating inside a glass flask or as the stopper to the flask. It symbolises the human terror of death, utter despair and the process of putrefaction whereby the body is reduced to a black slime. Ravens have long been associated with death and destruction as they were frequently seen feeding on the corpses of the slain on battlefields. But the Norse god Odin had two ravens – Huginn, Thought, and Muninn, Memory – who flew across the world to bring him news. It is said he believed that one day the birds would not return to him, and of the two birds, the one he feared losing most was Memory.
Sea-swine – now known as the porpoise, it was considered a ‘dainty blubber’ in the Middle Ages and much preferred to seal or whale. The clergy in the Middle Ages called it porco-marino. It was often served as a savoury pudding in which the blood and fat of the porpoise were mixed with oatmeal, salt, pepper and ginger, then boiled in the beast’s intestine. Seal, whale, porpoise and beaver tails were all deemed ‘fish’ by the ecclesiastical authorities so, with ordinary fish and shellfish, could be eaten on fast days and during Lent, when meat was forbidden.
Seven Whistlers – a superstition found in all parts of Britain. The seven birds are believed to be lost or wandering hum
an souls whose piercing cries warn of death and disaster. In some parts of the country, the superstition is that they are six birds seeking a seventh, and when they find it, the world will end. Several different birds with a plaintive, eerie cry are thought to be the Seven Whistlers, especially the curlew, but also plovers, whimbrels and widgeon.
Sailors believed the Seven Whistlers were the souls of drowned men warning of a storm that would wreck the ship. Soldiers thought they predicted a battle in which many would die, and as late as 1855 a newspaper carried a report that miners on their way to work turned back, because they had heard the Seven Whistlers. All the miners in that colliery flatly refused to go down the mine that day, even though it meant losing a day’s pay, saying the birds were warning of a mining disaster and they knew of men who had ignored such warnings and been killed.
Shuck – or black shuck, was a shape-shifting beast or demon, which would appear as a large shaggy black dog, with enormous, glowing, fiery eyes. The creature most frequently took the form of a spectral dog, but could also appear as a black goat or calf. The name shuck comes from the old English scucca meaning devil or fiend. In latter centuries the black shuck has come to be regarded as an omen of death. But in earlier centuries it more often appeared as a warning or as a guardian. In some accounts it was said to have saved the person’s life by blocking their way on a road, causing them to turn back and preventing them walking into unseen danger.
Soap – soft soap, made from mutton or goat fat, soda and potash or wood ash, was in use in Britain from the ninth or tenth centuries onwards. It quickly went rancid and was quite caustic. The Arabs perfected hard soap made from olive oil, soda, lime juice and sweet-smelling herbs. It was made mainly in the olive-growing countries such as Spain; hence it was known as Castile soap. It was imported into Britain from the twelfth century, though it was obviously a luxury item found only in the wealthier households.
Still room – most great medieval manors and castles in Europe had a still room or separate building where herbs were prepared for use in medicines, perfumes or cosmetics. The still room functioned as the pharmacy for the household and all those employed in the manor. In the still room they also made distillations of roses, mint, lavender or bergamot to perfume candles, furniture polish and the water in the lavers used by all to rinse their hands before and after every meal. The still room was managed by the lady of the house, assisted by her daughters and trained still-room maids. It was vital that the mistress of the house should have the means to treat the sick and injured, both in war and peacetime, especially when the nearest physician or monastic infirmary might be several days’ ride away.
Tantine – meaning ‘Auntie’. The girls in the Ricey-Bas inn address the tavern owner as Tantine. They might have been her real nieces, as Vincent innocently presumes, but equally it was common for female brothel-keepers to claim that the girls in their houses were their nieces and to be addressed as ‘auntie’ by them, in an attempt to avoid being charged with keeping a disorderly house.
Tatterfoal – many tracks and roads in the east of England, particularly in the fenlands, were said to be haunted after dark by the tatterfoal, a rough-coated horse with glowing eyes, from which an eerie blue light emanated. It was said to make the sound of rattling chains or a coffin lid opening and was believed to be a malicious goblin, able to change its shape at will. It terrified anyone foolish enough to venture along the road at night, driving travellers into bogs, drowning children and causing horses carrying riders to bolt. In other areas, it was known as the Shag, Shagfoal, Brash or Hedley Kow.
Unguentum basilicon – an unguent or ointment that heats the skin and is used to draw out pus and infected material from wounds. It was made by melting beeswax, pine resin, suet and Greek pitch in oil. The more expensive version also contained turpentine, frankincense and myrrh and was known as greater basilicon, while the basic version was known as lesser basilicon.
Wren – many of the names given to the wren in European languages make reference to the bird as king. In Latin it was called regulus, in French reytelet or roi des oiseaux meaning ‘king of the birds’, and in Swedish kungs fogel or ‘the king’s bird’. In German it was known as Zaunkönig (hedge king) and Schneekönig (snow king), and in Dutch, Konije meaning ‘little king’.
The ritual of the hunting of the wren in midwinter culminated in the bird being beaten to death, then processed from house to house on a decorated bier or hanging from a wheel on the end of a long pole, before being solemnly buried. There are a dozen different legends to explain this custom, many involving the idea that the wren’s shrill cry betrayed a hunted man to his enemies. For example, one legend says the wren’s call warned St Stephen’s captors that he was escaping, and another version tells how the wren led the Roman soldiers to Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane. These legends may have arisen from the Christian belief that the wren was the messenger to the pagan druids, whom the early Christians in northern Europe regarded as enemies of the Church.
But the origins of the wren hunt are almost certainly pre-Christian, dating back at least to the ancient Celts, if not earlier, when the wren, as the scientific name, Troglodytes troglodytes, suggests, was thought to be a cave-dweller, a bird of the underworld, as it often nests in tombs and holes. The wren represented the god of the underworld and of winter and darkness, and the king of winter had to be ritually killed in order to allow spring and light to return to the land.
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