by David Robson
54 For more information on the sense of selfhood in Japan (and, in particular, the way it is encoded in language and education), see Cave, P. (2007), Primary School in Japan: Self, Individuality, and Learning in Elementary Education, Abingdon, England: Routledge, pp. 31?43, Smith, R. (1983), Japanese Society: Tradition, Self, and the Social Order, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 68?105.
55 See, for example, Talhelm, T., Zhang, X., Oishi, S., Shimin, C., Duan, D., Lan, X. and Kitayama, S. (2014), ‘Large-scale Psychological Differences Within China Explained By Rice Versus Wheat Agriculture’, Science, 344(6184), 603?8.
56 Henrich, Heine and Norenzayan, ‘Beyond WEIRD’.
57 See, for instance, Grossmann, I. and Kross, E. (2010), ‘The Impact of Culture on Adaptive Versus Maladaptive Self-reflection’, Psychological Science, 21(8), 1150?7. Wu, S. and Keysar, B. (2007), ‘The Effect of Culture on Perspective Taking’, Psychological Science, 18(7), 600?6. Spencer-Rodgers, J., Williams, M.J. and Peng, K. (2010), ‘Cultural Differences in Expectations of Change and Tolerance for Contradiction: A Decade of Empirical Research’, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(3), 296?312.
58 Reason, J.T., Manstead, A.S.R. and Stradling, S.G. (1990), ‘Errors and Violation on the Roads: A Real Distinction?’ Ergonomics, 33(10?11), 1315–32.
59 Heine, S.J. and Hamamura, T. (2007), ‘In Search of East Asian Self-enhancement’, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(1), 4?27.
60 Santos, H.C., Varnum, M.E. and Grossmann, I. (2017), ‘Global Increases in Individualism’, Psychological Science, 28(9), 1228?39. See also https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/individualistic-practices-and-values-increasing-around-the-world.html.
61 Franklin, B. (4 November 1789), Letter to John Wright. Unpublished, retrieved from http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/framedVolumes.jsp.
62 Franklin, B. (9 March 1790), To Ezra Stiles, with a statement of his religious creed. Retrieved from http://www.bartleby.com/400/prose/366.html.
Chapter 5
1 Kroc, R., with Anderson, R. (1977/87), Grinding It Out: The Making of McDonald’s, New York: St Martin’s Paperbacks, pp. 5–12, 39–59.
2 Quoted in Hastie, R. and Dawes, R.M. (2010), Rational Choice in an Uncertain World: The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, p. 66.
3 Damasio, A. (1994), Descartes’ Error, New York: Avon Books, pp. 37–44.
4 This was also true when the participants viewed emotionally charged photographs. Unlike most participants, the people with damage to the frontal lobes showed no change to their skin conductance: Damasio, Descartes’ Error, pp. 205–23.
5 Kandasamy, N., Garfinkel, S.N., Page, L., Hardy, B., Critchley, H.D., Gurnell, M. and Coates, J.M. (2016), ‘Interoceptive Ability Predicts Survival on a London Trading Floor’, Scientific Reports, 6, 32986.
6 Werner, N.S., Jung, K., Duschek, S. and Schandry, R. (2009), ‘Enhanced Cardiac Perception Is Associated with Benefits in Decision-making’, Psychophysiology, 46(6), 1123–9.
7 Kandasamy, et al., ‘Interoceptive Ability Predicts Survival on a London Trading Floor’.
8 Ernst, J., Northoff, G., Böker, H., Seifritz, E. and Grimm, S. (2013), ‘Interoceptive Awareness Enhances Neural Activity during Empathy’, Human Brain Mapping, 34(7), 1615–24. Terasawa, Y., Moriguchi, Y., Tochizawa, S. and Umeda, S. (2014), ‘Interoceptive Sensitivity Predicts Sensitivity to the Emotions of Others’, Cognition and Emotion, 28(8), 1435–48.
9 Chua, E.F. and Bliss-Moreau, E. (2016), ‘Knowing Your Heart and Your Mind: The Relationships between Metamemory and Interoception’, Consciousness and Cognition, 45, 146–58.
10 Umeda, S., Tochizawa, S., Shibata, M. and Terasawa, Y. (2016), ‘Prospective Memory Mediated by Interoceptive Accuracy: A Psychophysiological Approach’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 371(1708), 20160005.
11 Kroc, with Anderson, Grinding It Out, p. 72. See also Schupack v. McDonald’s System, Inc., in which Kroc is quoted about his funny bone feeling: https://law.justia.com/cases/nebraska/supreme-court/1978/41114-1.html.
12 Hayashi, A.M. (2001), ‘When to Trust Your Gut’, Harvard Business Review, 79(2), 59–65. See also Eugene Sadler-Smith’s fascinating discussions of creativity and intuition in Sadler-Smith, E. (2010). The Intuitive Mind: Profiting From the Power of Your Sixth Sense. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
13 Feldman Barrett relates this story in her fascinating and engaging book, How Emotions Are Made: Feldman Barrett, L. (2017), How Emotions Are Made, London: Pan Macmillan, pp. 30–1. I’ve also written about this work for BBC Future: http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20171012-how-emotions-can-trick-your-mind-and-body.
14 Redelmeier, D.A. and Baxter, S.D. (2009), ‘Rainy Weather and Medical School Admission Interviews’, Canadian Medical Association Journal, 181(12), 933.
15 Schnall, S., Haidt, J., Clore, G.L. and Jordan, A.H. (2008), ‘Disgust as Embodied Moral Judgment’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(8), 1096–109.
16 Lerner, J.S., Li, Y., Valdesolo, P. and Kassam, K.S. (2015), ‘Emotion and Decision Making’, Annual Review of Psychology, 66.
17 This quote was taken from Lisa Feldman Barrett’s TED talk in Cambridge, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZYAEh3T5a80.
18 Seo, M.G. and Barrett, L.F. (2007), ‘Being Emotional During Decision Making—Good or Bad? An Empirical Investigation’, Academy of Management Journal, 50(4), 923–40.
19 Cameron, C.D., Payne, B.K. and Doris, J.M. (2013), ‘Morality in High Definition: Emotion Differentiation Calibrates the Influence of Incidental Disgust on Moral Judgments’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(4), 719–25. See also Fenton-O’Creevy, M., Soane, E., Nicholson, N. and Willman, P. (2011), ‘Thinking, Feeling and Deciding: The Influence of Emotions on the Decision Making and Performance of Traders’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(8), 1044–61.
20 See, for instance, Füstös, J., Gramann, K., Herbert, B.M. and Pollatos, O. (2012), ‘On the Embodiment of Emotion Regulation: Interoceptive Awareness Facilitates Reappraisal’, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(8), 911–17. And Kashdan, T.B., Barrett, L.F. and McKnight, P.E. (2015), ‘Unpacking Emotion Differentiation: Transforming Unpleasant Experience by Perceiving Distinctions in Negativity’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(1), 10–16.
21 See also Alkozei, A., Smith, R., Demers, L.A., Weber, M., Berryhill, S.M. and Killgore, W.D. (2018), ‘Increases in Emotional Intelligence after an Online Training Program Are Associated with Better Decision-Making on the Iowa Gambling Task’, Psychological Reports, 0033294118771705.
22 Bruine de Bruin, W., Strough, J. and Parker, A.M. (2014), ‘Getting Older Isn’t All That Bad: Better Decisions and Coping When Facing “Sunk Costs” ’, Psychology and Aging, 29(3), 642.
23 Miu, A.C. and Crişan, L.G. (2011), ‘Cognitive Reappraisal Reduces the Susceptibility to the Framing Effect in Economic Decision Making’, Personality and Individual Differences, 51(4), 478–82.
24 Halperin, E., Porat, R., Tamir, M. and Gross, J.J. (2013), ‘Can Emotion Regulation Change Political Attitudes in Intractable Conflicts? From the Laboratory to the Field’, Psychological Science, 24(1), 106–11.
25 Grossmann, I. and Oakes, H. (2017), ‘Wisdom of Yoda and Mr. Spock: The Role of Emotions and the Self’. Available as a pre-print on the PsyArxiv service: https://psyarxiv.com/jy5em/.
26 See, for instance, Hill, C.L. and Updegraff, J.A. (2012), ‘Mindfulness and Its Relationship to Emotional Regulation’, Emotion, 12(1), 81. Daubenmier, J., Sze, J., Kerr, C.E., Kemeny, M.E. and Mehling, W. (2013), ‘Follow Your Breath: Respiratory Interoceptive Accuracy in Experienced Meditators’, Psychophysiology, 50(8), 777–89. Fischer, D., Messner, M. and Pollatos, O. (2017), ‘Improvement of Interoceptive Processes after an 8-Week Body Scan Intervention’, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 452. Farb, N.A., Segal, Z.V. and Anderson, A.K. (2012), ‘Mindfulness Meditation Training Alters Cortical Representations of Interoceptive At
tention’, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(1), 15–26.
27 Hafenbrack, A.C., Kinias, Z. and Barsade, S.G. (2014), ‘Debiasing the Mind through Meditation: Mindfulness and the Sunk-Cost Bias’, Psychological Science, 25(2), 369–76.
28 For an in-depth discussion of the benefits of mindfulness to decision making, see Karelaia, N. and Reb, J. (2014), ‘Improving Decision Making through Mindfulness’, forthcoming in Reb, J. and Atkins, P. (eds), Mindfulness in Organizations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Hafenbrack, A.C. (2017), ‘Mindfulness Meditation as an On-the-Spot Workplace Intervention’, Journal of Business Research, 75, 118?29.
29 Lakey, C.E., Kernis, M.H., Heppner, W.L. and Lance, C.E. (2008), ‘Individual Differences in Authenticity and Mindfulness as Predictors of Verbal Defensiveness’, Journal of Research in Personality, 42(1), 230?8.
30 Reitz, M., Chaskalson, M., Olivier, S. and Waller, L. (2016), The Mindful Leader, Hult Research. Retrieved from: https://mbsr.co.uk/userfiles/Publications/Mindful-Leader-Report-2016-updated.pdf.
31 Kirk, U., Downar, J. and Montague, P.R. (2011), ‘Interoception Drives Increased Rational Decision-Making in Meditators Playing the Ultimatum Game’, Frontiers in Neuroscience, 5, 49.
32 Yurtsever, G. (2008), ‘Negotiators’ Profit Predicted By Cognitive Reappraisal, Suppression of Emotions, Misrepresentation of Information, and Tolerance of Ambiguity’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 106(2), 590–608.
33 Schirmer-Mokwa, K.L., Fard, P.R., Zamorano, A.M., Finkel, S., Birbaumer, N. and Kleber, B.A. (2015), ‘Evidence for Enhanced Interoceptive Accuracy in Professional Musicians’, Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 349. Christensen, J.F., Gaigg, S.B. and Calvo-Merino, B. (2018), ‘I Can Feel My Heartbeat: Dancers Have Increased Interoceptive Accuracy’, Psychophysiology, 55(4), e13008.
34 Cameron, C.D., Payne, B.K. and Doris, J.M. (2013), ‘Morality in High Definition: Emotion Differentiation Calibrates the Influence of Incidental Disgust on Moral Judgments’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(4), 719–25.
35 Kircanski, K., Lieberman, M.D. and Craske, M.G. (2012), ‘Feelings into Words: Contributions of Language to Exposure Therapy’, Psychological Science, 23(10), 1086–91.
36 According to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary, the first written use of the word appeared in 1992 in The London Magazine, but it only recently entered more common usage: https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/hangry-meaning.
37 Zadie Smith offers us another lesson in emotion differentiation in the following essay on joy – a ‘strange admixture of terror, pain, and delight’ – and the reasons that it should not be confused with pleasure. Besides being an astonishing read, the essay is a perfect illustration of the ways that we can carefully analyse our feelings and their effects on us. Smith, Z. (2013), ‘Joy’, New York Review of Books, 60(1), 4.
38 Di Stefano, G., Gino, F., Pisano, G.P. and Staats, B.R. (2016), ‘Making Experience Count: The Role of Reflection in Individual Learning’. Retrieved online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2414478.
39 Cited in Pavlenko, A. (2014), The Bilingual Mind, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 282.
40 Keysar, B., Hayakawa, S.L. and An, S.G. (2012), ‘The Foreign-language Effect: Thinking in a Foreign Tongue Reduces Decision Biases’, Psychological Science, 23(6), 661?8.
41 Costa, A., Foucart, A., Arnon, I., Aparici, M. and Apesteguia, J. (2014), ‘ “Piensa” Twice: On the Foreign Language Effect in Decision Making’, Cognition, 130(2), 236–54. See also Gao, S., Zika, O., Rogers, R.D. and Thierry, G. (2015), ‘Second Language Feedback Abolishes the “Hot Hand” Effect during Even-Probability Gambling’, Journal of Neuroscience, 35(15), 5983–9.
42 Caldwell-Harris, C.L. (2015), ‘Emotionality Differences between a Native and Foreign Language: Implications for Everyday Life’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(3), 214–19.
43 You can read more about these benefits in this accessible article by Amy Thompson, a professor of applied linguistics at the University of South Florida. Thompson, A. (12 December 2016), ‘How Learning a New Language Improves Tolerance’, The Conversation: https://theconversation.com/how-learning-a-new-language-improves-tolerance-68472.
44 Newman-Toker, D.E. and Pronovost, P.J. (2009), ‘Diagnostic Errors—The Next Frontier for Patient Safety’, Journal of the American Medical Association, 301(10), 1060?2.
45 Andrade, J. (2010), ‘What Does Doodling Do?’ Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(1), 100?6.
46 For Silvia Mamede’s review and interpretation of these (and similar) results, see Mamede, S. and Schmidt, H.G. (2017), ‘Reflection in Medical Diagnosis: A Literature Review’, Health Professions Education, 3(1), 15?25.
47 Schmidt, H.G., Van Gog, T., Schuit, S.C., Van den Berge, K., Van Daele, P.L., Bueving, H., Van der Zee, T., Van der Broek, W.W., Van Saase, J.L. and Mamede, S. (2017), ‘Do Patients’ Disruptive Behaviours Influence the Accuracy of a Doctor’s Diagnosis? A Randomised Experiment’, BMJ Quality & Safety, 26(1), 19–23.
48 Schmidt, H.G., Mamede, S., Van den Berge, K., Van Gog, T., Van Saase, J.L. and Rikers R.M. (2014), ‘Exposure to Media Information about a Disease Can Cause Doctors to Misdiagnose Similar-Looking Clinical Cases’, Academic Medicine, 89(2), 285?91.
49 For a further discussion of this new understanding of expertise, and the need for doctors to slow their thinking, see Moulton, C.A., Regehr G., Mylopoulos M. and MacRae, H.M. (2007), ‘Slowing Down When You Should: A New Model of Expert Judgment’, Academic Medicine, 82(10Suppl.), S109–16.
50 Casey, P., Burke, K. and Leben, S. (2013), Minding the Court: Enhancing the Decision-Making Process, American Judges Association. Retrieved online from http://aja.ncsc.dni.us/pdfs/Minding-the-Court.pdf.
51 The first four stages of this model are usually attributed to Noel Burch of Gordan Training International.
52 The idea of ‘reflective competence’ was originally proposed by David Baume, an education researcher at the Open University in the UK, who had described how experts need to be able to analyse and articulate their methods if they are to pass them on to others. But the doctor Pat Croskerry also uses the term to describe the fifth stage of expertise, in which experts can finally recognise the sources of their own bias.
Chapter 6
1 ‘Bananas and Flesh-eating Disease’, Snopes.com. Retrieved 19 October 2017, http://www.snopes.com/medical/disease/bananas.asp.
2 Forster, K. (7 January 2017), ‘Revealed: How Dangerous Fake News Conquered Facebook’, Independent: https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/fake-news-health-facebook-cruel-damaging-social-media-mike-adams-natural-health-ranger-conspiracy-a7498201.html.
3 Binding, L. (24 July 2018), ‘India Asks Whatsapp to Curb Fake News Following Spate of Lynchings’, Sky News online: https://news.sky.com/story/india-asks-whatsapp-to-curb-fake-news-following-spate-of-lynchings-11425849.
4 Dewey, J. (1910), How We Think, p 101. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
5 Galliford, N. and Furnham, A. (2017), ‘Individual Difference Factors and Beliefs in Medical and Political Conspiracy Theories’, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 58(5), 422?8.
6 See, for instance, Kitai, E., Vinker, S., Sandiuk, A., Hornik, O., Zeltcer, C. and Gaver, A. (1998), ‘Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine among Primary Care Patients’, Family Practice, 15(5), 411–14. Molassiotis, A., et al. (2005), ‘Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Cancer Patients: A European Survey’, Annals of Oncology, 16(4), 655?63.
7 ‘Yes, We Have No Infected Bananas’, CBC News, 6 March 2000: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/yes-we-have-no-infected-bananas-1.230298.
8 Rabin, N. (2006), ‘Interview with Stephen Colbert. The Onion, https://tv.avclub.com/stephen-colbert-1798208958.
9 Song, H. and Schwarz, N. (2008), ‘Fluency and the Detection of Misleading Questions: Low Processing Fluency Attenuates the Moses Illusion’, Social Cognition, 26(6), 791?9.
10 This research is summarised in the followi
ng review articles: Schwarz, N. and Newman, E.J. (2017), ‘How Does the Gut Know Truth? The Psychology of “Truthiness” ’, APA Science Brief: http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2017/08/gut-truth.aspx. Schwarz, N., Newman, E. and Leach, W. (2016), ‘Making the Truth Stick & the Myths Fade: Lessons from Cognitive Psychology’, Behavioral Science & Policy, 2(1), 85–95. See also Silva, R.R., Chrobot, N., Newman, E., Schwarz, N. and Topolinski, S. (2017), ‘Make It Short and Easy: Username Complexity Determines Trustworthiness Above and Beyond Objective Reputation’, Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2200.
11 Wu, W., Moreno, A. M., Tangen, J. M., & Reinhard, J. (2013), ‘Honeybees can discriminate between Monet and Picasso paintings’, Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 199(1), 45–55. Carlström, M., & Larsson, S. C. (2018). ‘Coffee consumption and reduced risk of developing type 2 diabetes: a systematic review with meta-analysis’, Nutrition Reviews, 76(6), 395–417. Olszewski, M., & Ortolano, R. (2011). ‘Knuckle cracking and hand osteoarthritis’, The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 24(2), 169–174.
12 Newman, E.J., Garry, M. and Bernstein, D.M., et al. (2012), ‘Nonprobative Words (or Photographs) Inflate Truthiness’, Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 19(5), 969?74.
13 Weaver, K., Garcia, S.M., Schwarz, N. and Miller, D.T. (2007), ‘Inferring the Popularity of an Opinion from Its Familiarity: A Repetitive Voice Can Sound Like a Chorus’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 821–33.
14 Weisbuch, M. and Mackie, D. (2009), ‘False Fame, Perceptual Clarity, or Persuasion? Flexible Fluency Attribution in Spokesperson Familiarity Effects’, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(1), 62–72.
15 Fernandez-Duque, D., Evans, J., Christian, C. and Hodges, S.D. (2015), ‘Superfluous Neuroscience Information Makes Explanations of Psychological Phenomena More Appealing’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 27(5), 926–44.
