Under cover of the bombardment, one thousand Marines landed and secured a beachhead between San Juan and El Caney. Within two days, ten thousand soldiers, including General Grissom’s Buffalo Soldiers joined the Marines with cannons and Gatling guns. Just after sunrise the next day the naval bombardment of both hills resumed.
Under cover of the bombardment, the Gatling gun crews, under the command of Captain Hannibal Johnson moved forward to an enfilading position to fire into the Spanish entrenchments located on the lower plateau called Kettle Hill. Hannibal had designed pivot mounts for the Gatling guns to increase their radius of fire.
One hour into the bombardment, the soldiers and marines moved up the hill. To escape the bombardment most of the Spanish troops hunkered down into their bunkers. Some braved the parapet and began to fire down at the attackers. The Gatling guns, swiveling from side to side, began firing into the trenches driving the defenders back. Encouraged, the attacking regiments surged forward. When the lead elements of the attack were within 300 yards of the trenches, the naval bombardment stopped, and when the attackers were within 150 yards, the Gatling guns stopped firing.
General Grissom’s 10th and 24th Buffalo Soldier regiments and the New York 16th Regiment then began a sprint to the Spanish entrenchments. Freed from the Gatling gun fire, the Spanish and militia troops mounted the parapets and fired their rifles into the attackers. The first ranks were cut down, but the others surged up the hill. As the American forces reached the trenches, the Spanish briefly engaged in hand to hand fighting to allow the balance of the Spanish regulars and militia forces to withdraw up to the summit.
The Gatling guns began firing into the retreating Spaniards; then the attacking American units began a spontaneous pursuit. The Gatling guns covered the advance allowing the attackers to get close to the top. A final surge overran the summit. A rear guard of the Spanish troops remained and fought to the death. The balance of the defenders retreated down towards Santiago.
Moments later, 600 Spanish regulars counterattacked up Kettle Hill. The Gatling guns, firing 700 rounds per minute drove off the attack killing over 500 of the attackers. The Buffalo Soldiers pursuit chased the surviving Spaniards into El Caney; then the defenders began firing from their trenches, driving the Buffalo Soldiers back with heavy casualties. The Spanish, strongly entrenched in the rubble, beat back two more assaults. The evening was approaching, and the Buffalo Soldiers withdrew taking their wounded back to Kettle Hill.
The Buffalo soldiers sustained over one thousand casualties in the day’s battles including 257 killed in action and 40 missing. General Johnson placed the Battalion in reserve and ordered it to be rotated back to Guantanamo. The next morning the Buffalo Soldiers aided in the loading of the wounded onto the hospital ships then boarded other troop ships for the short trip to Guantanamo. There they relieved General Wheeler’s soldiers, who boarded the troopships for Santiago.
With the arrival of Wheeler’s fresh troops, General Johnson planned for a war of attrition with the defenders of Santiago. Manuel Quesada’s Cuban rebels invested Santiago from the interior, regularly harassing the defenders, and cutting off communications from Havana. General Johnson tightened the siege lines. Following three days of attacks by General Wheeler’s troops, El Caney fell. Admiral Lee’s warships maintained a constant bombardment. Cut off and without hope of relief, General Edwardo Gomez, who succeeded Juan de Burriel, asked for terms and a ceasefire. Johnson agreed and scheduled a meeting the following day.
On March 25, at eight bells, Admiral Lee steamed his warships into Santiago harbor and dropped anchor. The crew erected a tent in front of the forward turret and fastened stairs to the starboard side to allow General Gomez and his staff easy access to the deck. Chairs and a long table were set up for all parties to sit comfortably under the shade.
At eleven bells, General Gomez and his staff arrived, in their dress uniforms, in motorized launches, tied up to the side of USS Massachusetts, climbed the stairs, and a Lieutenant escorted them to their placemats at the table. They stood by their chairs and watched Admiral Lee, Flag Captain Powell, General Johnston, his Chief of Staff Colonel Henry Rathbone, and Manuel Quesada descend the stairs from the Bridge.
Following introductions, all the participants took their seats. Captain Powell and Colonel Rathbone had copies of the surrender agreement in both English and Spanish. The terms were uncomplicated and very similar to the Peurto Rico terms. These included unconditional surrender of the Spanish soldiers, loyal militia, and their families.
The next day transports docked at the piers. The troops and their families boarded transport ships, and under escort steamed to the Isle of Pines. General Gomez and his officers boarded another which steamed under escort to Dominica. Following the departures, Manuel Quesada and his army occupied Santiago.
Chapter 29
Battle of Havana
March 31, 1874
Admiral Juan-Perez de Guzman sailed his fleet of six Spanish Navy Cruisers towards Havana. His flagship was SPS Villa de Madrid. Other warships in the squadron included SPS Carmen, SPS Alamosa, SPS Gerona, SPS Navas, and SPS Mari de Molina. All the vessels were 20-gun broadside warships, equipped with six inches of armor plate. Armaments included four 9-inch rifled muzzle loaders, six 8-inch rifled muzzle loaders, and ten 68-pound smoothbores.
The masthead lookout shouted down to the deck he sighted smoke from the west-north-west. The Flag Captain Luis-Felipe-Lopez sent a telescope aloft to the masthead lookout. Ten minutes later the lookout reported six warships approaching from fifteen nautical miles. Captain Lopez knew that warships from that direction must be American, and notified the Admiral of the sighting. Admiral de Guzman came up to the Quarterdeck and asked Captain Lopez: What is the distance to Havana”? Captain Lopez replied: Ten nautical miles or about one-hour sailing. I have ordered full speed from the steam engines. However, the two fleets are closing at a combined speed of 20 nautical miles. We will be in the engagement zone in 30-minutes. With your permission, I will order the drummer to sound battle stations.” The Admiral nodded, and the drum beat sounded.
The United States Navy fleet was Admiral Treat’s squadron, which initially escorted General Sobremente and his officers to Puerto au Prince for internment in a hotel. Treat then re-coaled his warships at Guantanamo, then sailed to the Isle of Pines. There the Spanish soldiers and Puerto Rican militia began constructing an internment camp, while the women and children remained in the transports. Treat left USS Towanda, and USS Sangamon as Naval support vessels, and steamed off towards Havana.
The masthead lookout on USS Puritan sighted smoke and called down to Flag Captain James Buckhannon, who was on the bridge. Knowing that Admiral Treat had intelligence that anticipated the arrival of a Spanish fleet. Captain Buckhannon invited the Admiral to join him on the bridge. After consulting with the Admiral, Buckhannon ordered full speed ahead; and sent the same signal to the rest of the fleet.
USS Puritan lead the battle line consisting of USS Agamenticus, USS Onondaga, USS Tecumseh, USS Weehawken, USS Miantonoth, into the Battle of Havana. Captain Buckhannon ordered the forward guns elevated to 15 degrees, and fired a ranging shot at a distance of nine miles. The masthead lookout reported the round was short. Buckhannon then ordered the firing of the second gun. The lookout reported short but closer. The third round fired was reported as a near miss. Buckhannon ordered both forward turret guns fired. The masthead lookout reported straddle. Captain Buckhannon looked over at Admiral Treat. Treat smiled broadly and said: “Well done, James. Signal the fleet to alter course 5 degrees to port, and fire as you bear.”
Admiral de Guzman watched in trepidation as the United States Navy fleet approached. He knew of the power of the American ironclads, and their destruction of the Royal Navy ships in several engagements. He was concerned as the ranging shots moved closer to SPA Villa de Madrid, and expressed horror when bracketed from such a long distance. His vessels would have to run the gauntlet for three miles before their guns were in range
.
Admiral Treat’s course correction brought his squadron on a parallel course four miles from the Spanish battle line. That was well within the range of his flotilla’s main armament but at the extreme range of the Spanish guns. One by one his warships found the range and blasted the Spanish fleet. The SPS Villa de Madrid was the first to falter. After being struck four times by USS Puritan’s guns, a salvo from USS Agamenticus hit her magazine. She blew up spectacularly. Within an hour the rest of the Spanish fleet met their fate. SPS Gerona and SPS Mari de Molina grounded themselves, and the surviving crew members escaped to Cuba. The rest of the fleet sank from American gunfire. The Spanish warships fought to the end refusing to surrender.
Following the destruction of the Spanish fleet, Admiral Treat ordered the fleet to enter Havana Harbor. USS Puritan lead the fleet into the harbor bombarding El Morro Castle. The guns at Reina Battery and Santa Clara Battery were next, and by the time USS Miantonoth silenced the batteries on Punta Brava, all Spanish resistance had ended. Treat sent emissaries under a flag of truce to the Captain General of Cuba Jose Gutierrez de la Concha with a demand for surrender. The Captain General refused the demand, as he needed instructions from Madrid.
Admiral Treat did not have enough troops for a ground assault. He opted for a naval blockade. Within weeks, the Cuban rebels invested Havana from the south. They participated in a war of attrition with Spanish troops launching daily attacks. The Spanish defenses held and then mounted several counter-attacks. A stalemate ensued, with neither side able to gain the advantage.
Chapter 30
Washington DC.
April 14, 1874
Secretary of State Hamilton Fish met with the French Ambassador Amedee Bartholdi, who delivered a message from The President of France, Patrice de MacMahon. President MacMahon offered to host a peace conference between The United States and Spain. The French Ambassador to Spain would be delivering the same message.
Paris France.
May 1, 1874
The peace conference convened at the Palace of Versailles. Representing the United States was Secretary of State Hamilton Fisher. Representing Spain was the former Prime Minister Juan De Savala. Spain was in a poor negotiating position. Guantanamo City had fallen. General Garcia surrendered to avoid starvation of his troops and the populace. General Garcia and his officers joined the defeated officers of Puerto Rico and Santiago in Port-au-Prince. His emaciated soldiers had boarded transports to the Isle of Pines internment camp.
Havana was on the brink of starvation. Cuban Rebels had completely cut off food supplies from the rest of the island. Admiral Treat’s naval blockade interdicted all shipping. Naval personnel boarded all merchant ships entering the blockade area and impounded all vessels of Spanish registry. Neutral ships were released and advised to trade at other ports. Admiral Treat offered them bushels of fresh lemons and limes as compensation for being inconvenienced. Sea captains treasured those fruits, as they were an excellent remedy to prevent scurvy which was common on long voyages.
Spain also was in turmoil, combating revolutions against the Republic in three areas. The Third Carlist War had broken out and was strongest in the Pyrenees Mountains areas. The Cantonal Rebellion broke out in Valencia, Andalusia, and Grenada. Riots were prevalent in Barcelona led by the International Workingman’s Association which called for revolution. The remaining Spanish Navy warships were involved in supporting troops suppressing those rebellions. Spain did not have the military forces to continue the war. She would need the interned troops and officers for the Republic to survive.
The negotiations were brief. Spain agreed to cede Cuba and Puerto Rico to the United States. In return, the United States Navy would escort the Spanish Colonial Army and transport it back to Spain in United States Navy transport vessels. Spain would also welcome the loyalist Cuban and Puerto Rican families.
The United States military established provisional governments in Cuba and Puerto Rico. One of the first accomplishments involved the freeing of all the slaves. Most remained on the haciendas as paid employees. Cuban and Puerto Rican exiles, living in The United States returned and assumed prominent roles in the governments. Cuban rebels, including Manuel Quesada, also eagerly participated. Dominican educators arrived and established schools to teach the former slaves and the largely illiterate population to speak English and to read and write. These educators were also able to provide the needed first-hand testimony of the benefits of citizenship in the United States. A policy of phased Americanization gradually spread among the population.
During the next year, trade boomed between the United States Cuba and Puerto Rico. Cuba and Puerto Rico were ideal for planting sugar, which was in high demand in the United States. American investors purchased many of the individual haciendas and began to mass produce sugar for import into the United States markets. Mechanical tools and equipment flooded into Cuba and Puerto Rico. For the first time in over a generation, prosperity flourished, elevating the economies of the islands.
The Homestead Act was also extended to include Cuba and Puerto Rico. Fertile farmland was available, particularly the Hacienda’s vacated when Cuban and Puerto Rican loyalists moved to Spain. The opportunity of 160 acres of farmland spurred another wave of migrations, mostly from the southern states.
The import of Cuban and Puerto Rican sugar, owned by Southern sugar corporations, spurred the interest of Western United States business interests in Hawaiian sugar. King William Charles Lunalilo died without an heir on February 13, 1874. His elected successor David Kalākaua, during his world tour, met Secretary of State Hamilton Fish in Washington. After extensive negotiations in May 1875, the King signedThe Reciprocity Treaty with the United States. This treaty opened free trade in sugar between the United States and the Kingdom of Hawaii. In return, the United States gained unrestricted access to the harbor and area surrounding Pu’u Loa, also known as Pearl Harbor.
The first sugar ship reached San Francisco during September 1866. The sugar industry in Hawaii boomed. The prosperity of the islands grew. However, the treaty effectively made Hawaii an American Protectorate. The United States Navy built a major naval base at Pearl Harbor. Thousands of Marines set up barracks, and gradually the base expanded to encompass the entire shoreline along the harbor. American business interests established subsidiary locations, and as the economy of the islands prospered, Honolulu became an American city.
Chapter 31
Presidential Election of 1876
The government officials in Cuba and Puerto Rico scheduled elections to coincide with the presidential elections in the United States in November 1876. The initial elections would select local legislatures and mayors. These elections were part of the phased process to introduce self-government to the populace of Cuba and Puerto Rico. All male citizens of Puerto Rico and Cuba were eligible to vote. The election process was new, and the eligible voters were eager to participate. Candidates hotly contested the pre-election campaigns organizing large rallies in larger cities, and small soapbox speeches in the villages. The elections took on a festival atmosphere.
Ulysses S Grant was re-nominated on the first ballot at the Republican Convention held at the Cincinnati Exposition Hall from June 14 to 16. His opposition came from James Blaine from Maine, who received 40% of the ballots. The nomination for Vice President was a very different issue. President Grant represented the Stalwart wing of the party. That group favored political patronage and the Spoils System, which was established by President Andrew Jackson. The more moderate wing of the party favored an end to the Spoils System and the merit system for political appointments. The Stalwarts derisively called that wing of the Party Half-Breeds, as they were considered to be half Republicans and half Democrats.
The political division, the Panic of 1873 plus a deep depression placed Republican Party in turmoil. In the 1874 off-year elections, the Democrats gained 94 seats in the House, and 9 in the Senate. Going into the Presidential elections, the Republicans controlled the Senate, and the
Democrats controlled the House. The Republicans needed a united front, or they could face disaster. On the first ballot, the moderate William Wheeler was nominated to be the Vice President.
The Democrats nominated the Governor of New York Samuel Tilden for President and the Governor of Indiana Thomas Hendricks as Vice President. Their platform pledged to eliminate the corruption in the Grant Administration, spawned by the Spoils System. However, to win, they needed to make inroads in the South.
The Democratic strategy for victory in the South was highly reliant on paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts and the White League. Using the strategy of the Mississippi Plan, these groups actively suppressed black and white Republican voter turnouts. Their method involved disrupting meetings and rallies and even using violence and intimidation. They saw themselves as the militant wing of the Democrat Party. The tactic worked in Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. The migration of hundreds of thousands of black families to Dominica, Cuba, and Puerto Rico also changed the demographics in the deep southern states.
However, overwhelming Republican victories in Dominica, Ontario, and Quebec offset these gains. The Electoral College gave the Grant – Wheeler ticket 200 electoral votes. The Tilden – Hendricks ticket earned 189 electoral votes. The popular vote was much closer. The Republican ticket received 4,626,150 votes, and the Democrat ticket received 4,634,808.
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