On the other hand, exploring the earlier career of the Padmini legends has meant that the crucial issue of their trajectories in the twentieth century remains to be investigated. I have outlined the socio-cultural shifts involved in the bhadralok amnesia about Alaol; moreover, alternative versions continued to circulate among an Urdu public well into the twentieth century. The dynamics of how precisely the Bengali bhadralok version came to constitute the dominant version of the legend by the mid-twentieth century—the role of organized Hindu communalism in this process; new boundaries and alignments of class, gender relations, community, and culture; the dissemination of a particular nationalist history through the new nation-state’s education apparatus and in popular culture through media like comic-books; shifts in print culture and the receding of popular genres like the qissa; all of these aspects demand exploration. The genealogies of the Padmini legend traced here uncover the processes by which particular elite groups refashioned their pasts between the sixteenth and early twentieth centuries. Such genealogies may also offer the potential to recover alternative traditions, memories, and histories.
The eventual consolidation of the bhadralok Padmini as nationalist icon in independent India deserves further investigation.
APPENDIX 1
Summaries of Selected Versions of the Legend
Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmavat (c. 1540)
PADMAVATI IS THE DAUGHTER OF GANDHARVSEN, THE KING of Singhal. At the age of twelve, she starts living with her companions (sakhiyan) in a palace of her own. She becomes staunch friends with the parrot Hiraman and reads the Vedas with him. The king resents the parrot’s proximity to his daughter and orders the bird killed. A terrified Hiraman bids farewell to Padmavati and flies away, leaving her in tears. In the forest, the parrot is trapped by a bird catcher and sold to a Brahmin who takes him to Chitaur.1 Ratansen, the king of Chitaur, is impressed with Hiraman’s learning and buys him from the Brahmin.
The parrot praises Padmavati’s beauty to his new master Ratansen. At the mere mention of her, the king burns in longing and the anguish of separation from her (viraha). In spite of opposition from his mother and his first wife Nagmati, he becomes an ascetic and embarks on a quest to win this ideal woman for his wife. Word spreads that the king is setting off for Singhal to win a wife. His vassals and princes, 16,000 of them, decide to accompany Ratansen. With Hiraman as his guide, he reaches the east coast, crosses the seven seas, and arrives in Singhal with his followers. There, he embarks on austerities in a temple to win Padmavati. Informed by the parrot of Ratansen’s coming, the princess goes to the temple but the meditating king is unaware of her presence. She returns to the palace in a huff but begins to reciprocate his desire. Desolate at having missed her, Ratansen builds a pyre to immolate himself “like a sati.”
Shiva and his consort Parvati intervene to quench this raging fire of desire (kama) that threatens to burn down the entire world. After proving his constancy to Parvati, Ratansen attacks the fortress of Singhal on Shiva’s advice. Still disguised as ascetics, he and his followers are captured and imprisoned by Gandharvsen. Ratansen is about to be crucified when his bard reveals his identity. Gandharvsen then gladly marries his daughter to the king of Chitaur. Further, Ratansen’s 16,000 followers are also rewarded with 16,000 padmini women of Singhal. Ratansen and Padmavati consummate their desire.
Meanwhile Nagmati burns in viraha and laments her lot. The fire of her desire now threatens to burn down the world, when a bird agrees to take her message to Singhal. Ratansen is reminded of home and sets out on the return journey with his new wife, her companions, and his followers. Guilty of pride at having obtained the most beautiful woman on earth, Ratansen is promptly punished by a storm on the seas. All their followers are killed, and Padmavati is marooned on the Ocean’s daughter Lacchmi’s island. As the Ocean rescues the drowning Ratansen, Lacchmi decides to test his love by appearing before him in the guise of Padmavati, but Ratansen is not fooled. The Ocean and his daughter reward him by reuniting him with his wife, and giving them fabulous gifts as well as safe return to the mainland. With these gifts, Ratansen finances a new entourage at Puri and they return triumphantly to Chitaur.
Nagmati complains bitterly at Ratansen’s bringing a rival wife (saut), so he placates her by spending the night with her. When an angry Padmavati complains in turn, Ratansen placates her in the same way. The two wives come to blows and some degree of peace is established only when Ratansen reprimands them both. Meanwhile, the Brahmin Raghav Chetan has gained a privileged position at the court because of his magical powers. Challenged by the other Brahmins and scholars at the court, he wins a contest fraudulently. When Ratansen discovers his deception and angrily banishes him, Padmavati summons the Brahmin and gives him her priceless bangle as a placatory gift. Raghav Chetan is stunned at her beauty and accepts the bangle before leaving Chitaur. Plotting vengeance, he goes to Delhi and gains an audience with Alauddin Khalji. Asked about the bangle he wears, he describes the incomparable beauty of Padmavati, a padmini woman. Supreme amongst the four categories of women, such a woman is typically found only in Singhal but is now present in the nearby kingdom of Chitaur.
Alauddin lays siege to Chitaur and demands the surrender of Padmavati. The king refuses but offers to pay tribute to the sultan. The siege continues and Alauddin finally suggests fresh terms to end the stalemate. Ratansen allows the sultan to enter the fort and entertains him as a favored guest, disregarding the warnings of his vassals Gora and Badal. Alauddin catches a glimpse of Padmavati by subterfuge, then tricks Ratansen into captivity and returns with him to Delhi. Padmavati approaches Gora and Badal, the two pillars of the kingdom, for help. Disguised as Padmavati and her female companions (sakhiyan), Gora, Badal, and their followers manage to enter the fortress and prison in Delhi and free their king. Discovered while escaping, Gora is killed fighting like Abhimanyu as he holds the sultan’s army at bay, while Badal reaches Chitaur safely with Ratansen.
Meanwhile Devpal, the Rajput ruler of neighboring Kumbhalner, takes advantage of Ratansen’s absence and sends a Brahmin woman as emissary to Padmavati. The latter rebuffs the suggestion that she become Devpal’s queen, and narrates the insult to Ratansen on his return. Ratansen sets off to punish Devpal, promising to return before Alauddin’s forces reach Chitaur. Devpal and Ratansen kill each other in single combat. Nagmati and Padmavati immolate themselves (sati) on the pyre of their husband. The Chitaur forces emerge for their last battle with Alauddin’s army after their women commit mass immolation (jauhar). Alauddin acquires an empty fortress, cheated of victory even as Chitaur “becomes Islam.”
Hemratan, Gora Badal Padmini Chaupai, 1589
“. . . I have made a true tale (sachi katha), as you will not have heard elsewhere. I show the nine rasas in new light. May the poets bestow their favor on me. The rasas of valor, love and laughter all edify the heart. But heed the rasa of duty to one’s lord (sami dharam), by which much honor is gained. He who preserves sami dharam, the essence of heroism (vir ras), is the pinnacle among warriors and defends the kshatriya path (khitrivat). Goru Rawat was accomplished (ati guni), and Badil very strong (ati balavanta). I tell this story (vat) of them. Ratansen was their king, he was thoroughly deceived by a trick. Goru and Badil were the two heroes, truthful (sattavant) and enlightened (savivek). They did battle and won honor, and became renowned throughout the earth (vasuha hua vikhyat). They preserved Chitrakot, this is the matter (vat) that I recount . . .”
Ratansen favored his queen Prabhavati, who could make seventy kinds of tasty food, so skilled and virtuous was she. One day, however, when he was dissatisfied with the food she had prepared, Prabhavati dared him to find some padmini woman who would cook better for him. The angry Ratansen set off on his horse with much treasure, accompanied by a single attendant.
He heard from a Nath yogi that there were many padmini women on the island of Singhal, and crossed the sea with the help of another yogi. After defeating the king of Singhal in a game of chess, Ratans
en married his sister Padmini and acquired half the kingdom and half its treasury in dowry. They returned to Chitor with four thousand robust horses, two thousand lively elephants, and two thousand companions for Padmini.
The Brahmin Raghav Vyas accidentally intruded into the lovemaking of Ratansen and Padmini. Fearful of Ratansen’s rage, Raghav left the city and reached Delhi eventually, where he found honor at the sultan’s court. Seeking revenge against Ratansen, he persuaded a Bhat to praise Padmini’s beauty to the sultan. Told that there were such women on the island of Singhal, the sultan marched south, but his soldiers drowned in the sea. However, the king of Singhal paid tribute to the sultan, so the latter returned to Delhi. Still seeking a padmini woman, he was told of her existence in Chitor.
He brought twenty-seven lakh soldiers, and weapons piled on weapons, and laid siege to Chitor. The fort was well stocked with supplies, however, so the sultan attempted to negotiate a single glimpse of Padmini before he returned to Delhi. Ratansen refused initially, but did invite the sultan into his palace to serve him a meal. As Padmini concealed herself behind a latticed window to catch a glimpse of the sultan, he caught a glimpse of her in turn, guided by the Brahmin Raghav. Now determined to obtain Padmini, the sultan tricked Ratansen into accompanying him out of the fort and captured him.
The fearful chiefs of Chitor considered surrendering Padmini, who sought a defender and found the brave kshatriyas Goru and Vadil. Both had quarreled with the king and refused service (chakri) with him, but they readily agreed to defend the queen and rescue the king. They did not even heed the pleas of their own women, to desist from such a perilous undertaking. Badil went to the sultan’s camp to make the appropriate arrangements to receive Padmini and her companions in palanquins. The sultan was so pleased that he rewarded Badil with one lakh gold coins, and countless horses, elephants, and robes. Badil then returned and insisted that the sultan receive Padmini only after his army departed. Only 3000 or 4000 warriors mounted on horses remained. Badil then insisted on Padmini’s behalf that the sultan marry Padmini rather than merely include her in his harem. On each occasion, the sultan readily agreed and rewarded Badil yet again, so the latter had acquired some three or four lakh gold coins.
When the palanquins finally arrived, warriors sprang out and rescued the king. As the enraged Alauddin’s warriors gave chase, Badil escorted Ratansen back to the fort while Gora stayed behind and held the sultan’s army at bay. Badil narrated Gora’s valiant death in battle to the latter’s wife. Swelling with love and valor, Gora’s wife immolated herself. Gora was rewarded by Indra in heaven with half his throne. Badil strove hard and rescued Padmini with guile and with valor.
Nainsi ri Khyat (c. 1660)
Muhta Nainsi’s narrative, compiled from Charan and Bhat oral traditions,2 is as follows:
Ratansi was the son of Ajaisi and brother of the warrior/chief Lakhamsi. In the matter of Padmani Lakhamsi and Ratansi were killed fighting Alavadin. After the Patsah had departed, they called him back from his encampment at Udaipur. Each son of Lakhamsi descended from the fort and fought for twelve days. On the thirteenth day they had juhar performed and the Ranas Lakhamsi and Ratansi were killed. The warrior/chief Lakhamsi, Ratansi and Karan, all three brothers were killed in fierce encounters at the fort’s gate. The warrior Lakhamsi’s son Anatsi was married to [the princess of] Jalor, he died fighting with Kanadde, and that hill [where he died fighting] is remembered in Jalor. Arsi was killed with them [Ratansi and Lakhamsi]. His son Rana Hamir ruled at Chitor for sixty-four years, seven months and one day. Only Ajaisi had been told to leave before the fierce encounters at the entrance to the fort [to preserve the lineage—ed. note].3
Sisod Vansavali (c. 1657)
The Sisod Vansavali added details that its author clearly considered significant, such as Likhamsi Rano’s title, Shri Gadh Mandalik (conqueror of fortresses):
He was the son of Rathor Lal Bai. He lived in Kelvara. He ascended the throne in Samvat 1331. He ruled for fifteen years, three months and four days. Along with five thousand horse, three hundred elephants, five thousand foot-soldiers (payak), two hundred drummers and pipers (vajitra), four kings, five Raos, three Rawats, seven brothers and twelve sons, he was killed in the fort. Ratansi Rawal had wedded Padmani the daughter of Raja Hamir Sekh Chahuvan; the Rana Mandalik Lakhamsingh had given a written assurance [that she would be protected] and they had brought her to Chitor. To keep his word, he came to Chitor and was killed with twelve sons. And one who was wedded to [the daughter of the ruler of] Jalor was killed there . . . In the royal household (rajlok) of Rana Gadh Mandalik Lakhamsingh there were twenty-seven queens and fourteen sons. [The fourteen sons are named in three couplets that end by praising Chitor, blessed with such heroes] . . .4
Rawal Ranaji ri Vat (not earlier than 1691)
At the turn of the eighteenth century, “The matter of Rana Ratansihji and Hamirji,” in the Rawal Ranaji ri Vat still considered Ratansingh the ruler of Chitor, not Lakshmansingh. Clearly, there were two strands to the anecdotal tradition by this time.
Patsah Alavadin Gori Pathan of Dilli came and attacked Chitrakot, in order to obtain Padmini who was in Rana Ratansihji’s home. Twelve sons, five brothers, uncles and countless Rajputs, officials of the state (kamdar), traders (vepari), Brahmins and [men of] many other jatis (kehi jat) were killed by the sword. The women committed jauhar (lugaya jhamar chadhi). The fort was taken over, the Patsah returned to Dilli, and gave the fort to Sonagara Malde. The Sonagaras ruled over the fort for thirty-five years. Rana Ajaisi was removed from the fort to preserve the lineage.5
Ibrat and Ishrat, Mudallil-i Shama-o-Parvana (Testimony of the Flame and the Moth) of Padmavat (1797), Urdu
The narrative begins with the conventional praise of God (hamd), praise of the Prophet (nat), prayer (munajat), and panegyric to the patron. We then learn of the young queen Padmavat and her friendship with a learned parrot; unfortunately, a jealous rival frees the bird which is then trapped by a hunter in the forest, and sold to a Brahmin trader from Chitor. Raja Ratansen of Chitorgarh buys the parrot, hears of Padmavat’s beauty, and falls in love with her. The bird instructs him that he must renounce the world before embarking on the difficult path of love (tariqa-i ishqbazi). Disregarding the pleas of his mother and wife Nagmat, Ratansen exchanges his kingly robes for the garb of an ascetic (jogi). As he embarks for the beautiful city of Serendip, 16,000 companions join him. In the temple at Serendip, the parrot brings news of Padmavat to Ratansen.
Meanwhile, Padmavat learns of the ascetic stranger from a friend. When she sees the disguised king, both are struck senseless (alam-i behoshi aur bekhudi). When Ratansen regains consciousness in the temple, he narrates his plight to the god Sadashiv. Following the advice of the goddess Gaura-Parvati, he arrives at the court of Gandhrapsen and declares his desire to marry Padmavat. He is captured while meeting his beloved in her chamber, and sentenced by the king to be executed. He is rescued, however, as the god Sadashiv reappears in the guise of a Brahmin and reveals his identity to Gandhrapsen. Ratansen marries Padmavat and finds bliss.
The narrative follows the Padmavat closely although in abbreviated fashion, in the following sequence of events: Nagmat sends an emissary to communicate her anguish; Ratansen and Padmavat embark on their return journey, are shipwrecked, and then rescued by the daughter of the sea. The co-wives quarrel in Chitor and are admonished by Ratansen; Raghav Chetan is exiled and conveys word of Padmavat to the sultan. Alauddin lays siege to Chitor; he beholds Padmini’s reflection and captures Ratansen by treachery. Gora and Badal, Ratansen’s nephews (his sister’s sons), disguise themselves as women, take an entourage of palanquins to the imperial camp and free Ratansen. When the king returns to Chitor, he hears of Devpal’s wooing of Padmavat in his absence, and sets off to avenge this second insult; he dies in single combat after killing Devpal of Kumbhalmer, and Padmavat and Nagmat immolate themselves. The sultan returns to Chitor, and the Rajputs led by Gora are defeated and killed in battle. Meanwhile, Kanvalse
n, Padmavat’s son, has been anointed king. When the sultan finds that Padmavat has died, he is grief-stricken, recognizes Kanvalsen as the new king of Chitor, and returns to Delhi.
Tod’s Account of the Padmini Legend (1829)
The story of Padmini is narrated thus in the Annals:6
Lakhamsi: Lachhman Singh—Lakhamsi succeeded his father in S. 1331 (AD 1275), a memorable era in the annals, when Chitor, the repository of all that was precious yet untouched of the arts of India, was stormed, sacked, and treated with remorseless barbarity by the Pathan emperor, Alau-d-din. Twice it was attacked by this subjugator of India. In the first siege it escaped spoliation, though at the price of its best defenders: that which followed is the first successful assault and capture of which we have any detailed account.
Bhim Singh: Padmini—Bhimsi was the uncle of the young prince, and protector during his minority. He had espoused the daughter of Hamir Sank (Chauhan) of Ceylon, the cause of woes unnumbered to the Sesodias. Her name was Padmini, a title bestowed only on the superlatively fair, and transmitted with renown to posterity by tradition and the song of the bard. Her beauty, accomplishments, exaltation, and destruction, with other incidental circumstances, constitute the subject of one of the most popular traditions of Rajwara. The Hindu bard recognized the fair, in preference to fame and love of conquest, as the motive for the attack of Alau-d-din, who limited his demand to the possession of Padmini; though this was after a long and fruitless siege. At length he restricted his desire to a mere sight of this extraordinary beauty, and acceded to the proposal of beholding her through the medium of mirrors. Relying on the faith of the Rajput, he entered Chitor slightly guarded, and having gratified his wish, returned. The Rajput, unwilling to be outdone in confidence, accompanied the king to the foot of the fortress, amidst many complimentary excuses from his guest at the trouble he thus occasioned. It was for this that Ala risked his own safety, relying on the superior faith of the Hindu. Here he had an ambush; Bhimsi was made prisoner, hurried away to the Tatar camp, and his liberty made dependent on the surrender of Padmini.
The Many Lives of a Rajput Queen Page 26
