by Mia Bay
84. McMurray, To Keep the Waters Troubled, 190.
85. Wells, Crusade, 89. Anti-Caste 3, nos. 7 and 8 (July and August 1890), quoted in Bressey, “A Strange and Bitter Crop.”
86. Wells, Crusade, 90.
87. Sandra Stanley Holton, “Segregation, Racism and White Women Reformers: A Transnational Analysis, 1840–1912,” Women’s History Review 10, no. 1 (2001): 7.
88. See, for example, Ida B. Wells, “The Lynch Law in All Its Phases,” 171—a speech she delivered in Boston.
89. Wells, Crusade, 99, 100.
90. Carolyn L. Karcher, “The White ‘Bystander’ and the Black Journalist ‘Abroad’: Albion W. Tourgée and Ida B. Wells as Allies against Lynching,” Prospects 29 (2004).
91. Wells, Crusade, 98, 101.
92. Ibid., 103.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid., 104.
95. Mayo, quoted in Ware, Beyond the Pale, 195.
96. See, for example, Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, “Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, 1880–1920,” American Historical Review 95, no. 4 (October 1990): 1076–1108.
97. Isabelle Mayo, “The Female Accusation” (1894), quoted in Ware, Beyond the Pale, 195.
98. Wells, Crusade, 105.
99. Ibid., 109, 110.
100. Ibid., 110.
101. Mayo, “The Female Accusation,” quoted in Ware, Beyond the Pale, 195.
5: Capturing the Attention of the “Civilized World”
1. “Editorial Comment,” The Atlanta Constitution, June 21, 1893.
2. Sarah L. Silkey, “Redirecting the Tide of White Imperialism: The Impact of Ida B. Wells’s Transatlantic Antilynching Campaign on British Conceptions of American Race Relations,” in Women Shaping the South: Creating and Confronting Change, eds. Angela Boswell and Judith N. McArthur (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2006), 11.
3. Ida B. Wells, Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells, ed. Alfreda Duster (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 113.
4. Ida B. Wells and Frederick Douglass circulated a letter describing and soliciting subscriptions for the pamphlet, which was addressed “To the Friends of Equal Rights.” It appeared in a number of black publications including The Christian Recorder, April 13, 1893.
5. Wells, Crusade, 116.
6. The Indianapolis Freeman, August 5, 1893.
7. “No Separate Exhibit Wanted,” Daily Inter Ocean, November 13, 1890.
8. “For the Colored People,” Daily Inter Ocean, November 9, 1890; “To Aid the Fair,” Daily Inter Ocean, July 1, 1892.
9. The Indianapolis Freeman, quoted in “Wants to Be Commissioner: Principal Parker Wants to Represent the Colored Race at the World’s Fair,” Daily Inter Ocean, January 28, 1891.
10. The Indianapolis Freeman, May 23, 1891.
11. T. J. Boisseau, “White Queens at the Chicago World’s Fair, 1893: New Womanhood in the Service of Class, Race, and Nation,” Gender and History 12, no. 1 (April 2000): 36.
12. F. L. Barnett, The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World’s Columbian Exposition (1893), in Selected Works of Ida B. Wells-Barnett, ed. Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 120.
13. Ibid., 122.
14. Ann Massa, “Black Women in the ‘White City,’” Journal of American Studies 8.3 (December 1974): 333.
15. Robert W. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876–1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 59.
16. Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle quoted in Mary Lockwood, “Mrs. Palmer’s Portrait,” in Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle, The Congress of Women (Chicago: Monarch Book Company, 1894), 817.
17. Boisseau, “White Queens at the Chicago World’s Fair,” 33–80.
18. Robert W. Rydell, “Contend, Contend!: Editor’s Introduction,” in The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World’s Columbian Exposition, Ida B. Wells et al. (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1999).
19. Black fairgoer quoted in The Atchison Blade, July 23, 1893, in Elliott M. Rudwick and August Meier, “Black Man in the ‘White City’: Negroes and the Columbian Exposition,” Phylon 26, no. 4 (1965): 359.
20. Wells quoted in Robert Rydell, “Contend, Contend!,” xxvii.
21. The Indianapolis Freeman, March 25, 1893.
22. The Bee (Washington, D.C.), April 15, 1893.
23. William S. McFeely, Frederick Douglass (New York: Norton, 1991), 368.
24. Douglass’s previous official address to the World’s Columbian Exposition focused on “Hayti and the Haitians.” A rousing defense of Haitian independence, it was attended by the twenty-six-year-old W.E.B. Du Bois. Herbert Aptheker, “DuBois on Douglass: 1895,” The Journal of Negro History 49, no. 4 (October 1986): 264–68.
25. McFeely, Frederick Douglass, 370.
26. “To Tole with Watermelons,” The Cleveland Gazette, July 22, 1893.
27. Fredericka Sprague, quoted in McFeely, Frederick Douglass, 370.
28. Rudwick and Meier, “Black Man in the ‘White City,’” 359.
29. “Claim Their Rights,” Daily Inter Ocean, April 14, 1893.
30. Chicago Daily Tribune, May 4, 1893; Chicago Daily Tribune, September 27, 1893.
31. Christopher Robert Reed, “All the World Is Here”: The Black Presence in the White City (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 148, 155.
32. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 66.
33. World’s Fair Puck 24 (1893): 279. See also M. Niquette and W. Buxton, “Meet Me at the Fair: Sociability and Reflexivity in Nineteenth-Century World Expositions,” Canadian Journal of Communication 22, no. 1 (January 1, 1997), www.cjc-online.ca/viewarticle.php?id=400.
34. Jo-Ann Morgan, “Mammy the Huckster: Selling the Old South in the New Century,” American Art 9, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 88; James C. Davis, “Race and American Narratives of Counter Publicity, 1890–1930,” Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University (2000), 36, 37, 56.
35. “Another Letter from Mr. Douglass,” The Indianapolis Freeman, April 15, 1893; Rydell, “Contend, Contend!” xxix.
36. I. Garland Penn, The Afro-American Press and Its Editors (1891, reprinted New York: Arno Press, 1969).
37. Ida B. Wells, The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World’s Columbian Exposition in Selected Works of Ida B. Wells-Barnett, ed. Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 49–50.
38. Frederick Douglass, The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World’s Columbian Exposition in Selected Works of Ida B. Wells-Barnett, ed. Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 51, 55, 56–57.
39. Wells, The Reason Why, 63.
40. Barnett, The Reason Why, 134–35, 136.
41. I. Garland Penn, The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World’s Columbian Exposition in Selected Works of Ida B. Wells-Barnett, ed. Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 90–116.
42. Wells, Crusade, 117, 118; Dunbar, quoted in Rydell, “Contend, Contend!” xxxii; “Appeal of Douglass,” Chicago Tribune, August 26, 1893.
43. Douglass, The Reason Why, 58; “Appeal of Douglass,” Chicago Tribune, August 26, 1893.
44. Wells, Crusade, 119; Hubert Howe Bancroft, Book of the Fair (Chicago: The Bancroft Company, 1893), 972.
45. Louis R. Harlan, “Booker T. Washington in a Biographical Perspective,” The American Historical Review 75, no. 6 (October 1970): 1583.
46. Booker T. Washington quoted in Rydell, “Contend, Contend!” xxxvi–xxxvii; Wells quoted in “Progress of the Colored Brothers,” Chicago Tribune, September 3, 1893.
47. Linda O. McMurray, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 206; Wells bemoaned the lack of subscriptions that forced the Age to cut back to four pages in Ida B. Wells, “Iola’s Southern Field,” The New York Age, November 19, 1892.
48. Wel
ls, Crusade, 238.
49. Alfreda Duster in Dorothy Sterling’s “Afterword” to The Memphis Diary of Ida B. Wells, ed. Miriam De Costa-Willis (Boston: Beacon, 1997), 193.
50. Stella Reed Garnett, “A Chapter in the Life of Ida B. Wells,” unpublished manuscript, April 26, 1951, 1; Ida B. Wells Papers, Box 7, Folder 10, University of Chicago, Special Collections; Alfreda Duster in Dorothy Sterling’s “Afterword” to The Memphis Diary of Ida B. Wells, 193; “Interview with Alfreda Duster,” in The Black Women’s Oral History Project ed. Ruth Edmonds Hill (Westport, Conn.: Meckler, 1991), vol. 3, 127. Painting the Sage of Anacostia in the unlikely role of cupid, the Duluth News Tribune maintained that Douglass told Wells that “Barnett is a fine Gentleman. He likes you and will make a good husband,” and likewise informed Barnett that “Miss Wells was a real nice girl.” Duluth News Tribune, July 6, 1895.
51. Ida B. Wells, “Two Christmas Days: A Holiday Story,” in Mildred I. Thompson, Ida B. Wells-Barnett: An Exploratory Study of an American Black Woman, 1893–1930 (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson Publishing, 1990), 225–34.
52. “Interview with Alfreda Duster,” 128.
53. Wells, Crusade, 121.
54. Ida B. Wells, “The Brutal Truth,” Daily Inter Ocean, July 19, 1893, 17.
55. Ida B. Wells, The Reason Why in Selected Works of Ida B. Wells, ed. Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 90, 91.
56. Ibid., 83, 85.
57. Ida B. Wells, A Red Record, in Selected Works of Ida B. Wells, ed. Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 217.
58. Isabelle Mayo to Ida B. Wells, September 12, 1893, Frederick Douglass Papers, Library of Congress.
59. Ibid.
60. Ida B. Wells to Frederick Douglass, March 13, 1894, Frederick Douglass Papers.
61. Wells, Crusade, 126.
62. These arrangements are discussed in Sandra Stanley Holton, “Segregation, Racism and White Women Reformers: A Transnational Analysis, 1840–1912,” Women’s History Review 10, no. 1 (2001): 5–25.
63. Wells, Crusade, 129.
64. Frederick Douglass to Rev. C. F. Aked, March 27, 1894, Frederick Douglass Papers; Frederick Douglass to Ida B. Wells, March 27, 1894, Frederick Douglass Papers.
65. Ida B. Wells to Frederick Douglass, Manchester, April 6, 1894, Frederick Douglass Papers.
66. Ellen Richardson to Frederick Douglass, Newcastle, England, April 22, 1894, Frederick Douglass Papers.
67. Ellen Richardson to Frederick Douglass, Newcastle, England, May 29, 1894, Frederick Douglass Papers.
68. The Daily Chronicle (London), quoted in “Wells’s Crusade,” The Sun (New York), July 26, 1894; Ellen Richardson to Frederick Douglass, Newcastle, England, April 22, 1894, Frederick Douglass Papers.
69. “The Bitter Cry of Black America,” The Westminster Gazette 10 (May 1894): 1.
70. Ibid., 2.
71. Teresa Zackodnik, “Ida B. Wells and ‘American Atrocities’ in Britain,” Women’s Studies International Forum 28 (2005): 256–73.
72. Wells, Crusade, 149.
73. Wells’s Daily Inter Ocean articles quote her speeches and are reprinted in Crusade. See also Ida B. Wells, “Liverpool’s Slave Trade Traditions and Present Practices,” The Independent, May 17, 1894, 46.
74. Wells, Crusade, 135, 141.
75. Ibid., 179.
76. Sarah L. Silkey, “Redirecting the Tide of White Imperialism: The Impact of Ida B. Wells’s Transatlantic Antilynching Campaign on British Conceptions of American Race Relations,” in Women Shaping the South: Creating and Confronting Change eds. Angela Boswell and Judith N. McArthur (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2006), 105.
77. Charles F. Aked, “The Race Problem in America,” The Contemporary Review 65 (June 1894): 827.
78. Silkey, “Redirecting the Tide,” 106.
79. Patricia Schechter, Ida B. Wells-Barnett and American Reform, 1880–1930 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 101.
80. Southern Horrors indicts Alabama bishop Fitzgerald for his statement that those “who condemn lynching show no sympathy for the white woman in the case.”
81. Ida B. Wells, “Mr. Moody and Miss Willard,” Fraternity, May 1894, Temperance and Prohibition Papers microfilm (1977). The careers and racial thought of both Moody and Willard are discussed in Edward J. Blum’s illuminating book Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism (Baton Rouge: University of Louisiana Press, 2005).
82. Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 194.
83. Wells, “Mr. Moody and Miss Willard,” 16–17.
84. “The Race Problem: Miss Willard on the Political Puzzle of the South,” The Voice (New York), October 23, 1890.
85. Excerpt from Frances E. Willard, “President’s Annual Address,” National WCTU Annual Meeting Minutes of 1893 (Chicago: Woman’s Temperance Publication Association, 1893), 136–38, Temperance and Prohibition Papers microfilm (1977), section 1, reel 4.
86. Lady Henry Somerset, “White and Black in America: An Interview with Miss Willard,” The Westminster Gazette, May 21, 1894, 3.
87. Ibid.
88. Wells, Crusade, 210.
89. “Anti-Lynching Committee,” The Times (London), August 1, 1894.
90. Wells, Crusade, 217, 218.
91. Ida B. Wells to Helen Pitts Douglass, London, April 26, 1894, Frederick Douglass Papers.
6: “Although a Busy Woman, She Has Found the Time to Marry”
1. Ida B. Wells, Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells, ed. Alfreda Duster (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 250.
2. Women’s Era 2 (August 1895): 16.
3. The Indianapolis Freeman, June 8, 1893.
4. Booker T. Washington quoted in Henry MacFarland, “A Negro with Sense,” The Record (Philadelphia), April 8, 1894, 12.
5. Ibid.
6. “This Woman’s Busy Day,” The Atlanta Constitution, September 20, 1895.
7. “Interview with Alfreda Duster,” in The Black Women’s Oral History Project, ed. Ruth Edmonds Hill, vol. 3 (Westport, Conn.: Meckler, 1991), 127.
8. Floyd W. Crawford, “Ida B. Wells: Some Reactions to Her Anti-Lynching Campaign in Britain,” manuscript of a paper delivered at LaMoyne College, March 2, 1963, Ida B. Wells Papers, Box 9, Folder 2, University of Chicago Library, Special Collections.
9. The Times (London), August 1, 1894, 11.
10. The New York Times, October 8, 1894, 7.
11. “Southern Governors on British Critics,” The Literary Digest IX, 2 (New York), September 22, 1894, 231.
12. “A Committee of Impertinence,” The Washington Post, October 10, 1894; “A Suggestion to the British,” The Atlanta Constitution, August 7, 1894; “British Anti-Lynchers,” The New York Times, August 2, 1894.
13. American readers heard that The Pall Mall Gazette denounced the committee’s work as “Nothing Short of Impertinence,” and that The Yorkshire Gazette questioned Florence Balgarnie’s “tactless screed,” but The Daily Mail’s ongoing support for the venture went unreported. “Nothing Short of Impertinence,” The Washington Post, October 22, 1894, 4; “Talking Sense at Last,” The Atlanta Constitution, October 27, 1894, 4.
14. “British Anti-Lynchers,” The New York Times, August 2, 1894.
15. The Daily Chronicle (London), quoted in “Lynching in America,” The Cleveland Gazette, September 1, 1894.
16. The New York Times, July 27, 1894.
17. Ida B. Wells, A Red Record, reprinted in Southern Horrors and Other Writings: The Anti-Lynching Campaign of Ida B. Wells, ed. Jacqueline Jones Royster (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 218.
18. The Columbus Evening Dispatch, quoted in “Tennessee Atrocity,” The Cleveland Gazette, September 8, 1894, 2.
19. Wells’s statement of September 2, 1894, is quoted in “The Tennessee Mob,” The Galveston Daily News, September 3, 1894.
20. “Lynch Law in Bad Odor,” The Washington Post, September 1, 1894.
21. “Old Unreconstr
ucted Charleston News and Courier,” The Cleveland Gazette, September 15, 1894, 2.
22. Wells, A Red Record, 219–20.
23. Ibid., 133.
24. “Lynching Case on Trial,” The Cleveland Gazette, November 17, 1894.
25. Wells, A Red Record, 154.
26. Paula J. Giddings, Ida: A Sword Among Lions (New York: HarperCollins, 2008), 316.
27. Wells, Crusade, 226, 238.
28. “Ida Wells in California: The Colored Crusader has a Grievance against Methodist Ministers,” The Sun (Baltimore), March 6, 1894, 3.
29. Higginson, quoted in Patricia Schechter, Ida B. Wells-Barnett and American Reform, 1880–1930 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 101.
30. Frances E. Willard, “The Colored People,” National WCTU Annual Meeting Minutes of 1894, Temperance and Prohibition Papers microfilm (1917), section 7, reel 4.
31. Beryl Satter, Each Mind a Kingdom: American Women, Sexual Purity and the New Thought Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 183–88, 216.
32. “Miss Wells Lectures,” The Cleveland Gazette, November 24, 1894.
33. The WCTU’s 1894 resolution as quoted in Wells, A Red Record, 146.
34. Ruth Bordin, Frances Willard: A Biography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 223.
35. Carolyn L. Karcher, “The White ‘Bystander’ and the Black Journalist ‘Abroad’: Albion W. Tourgée and Ida B. Wells as Allies against Lynching,” Prospects 29 (2004): 106.
36. Letter from Frederick Douglass et al. in “Lady Henry Somerset’s Statement Concerning Accusations of Miss Florence Balgarnie, June, 1895–May, 1896,” Temperance and Prohibition Papers microfilm (1977), section 2, reel 32, scrapbook 13, frame 223.
37. Frederick Douglass, “Why Is the Negro Lynched?” The Lesson of the Hour (1894), reprinted in The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, ed. Philip S. Foner, vol. 4, Reconstruction and After (New York: International Publishers, 1955).
38. “Through Their Bonnets,” The State (Columbia, S.C.), June 19, 1895, 1.
39. “British Women’s Council,” The New York Times, June 19, 1895, 5.
40. The Daily News (London), June 19, 1895.
41. “The WCTU and the Colour Question,” Anti-Caste, March 1895, 4, Temperance and Prohibition Papers microfilm (1977), section 3, reel 32, scrapbook 13, frame 215.
