After these words he summoned them to kiss his foot and then offered them his hand and cheek. The old cardinals also kissed them and made room for them to sit. Then the advocates pleaded a number of cases and when these had been settled, the old cardinals stood in a ring around the pope and the new ones kneeling took their oath according to the ancient formula. Then the pope placed the red hat, the badge of the cardinalate, on the head of each, and a chorus sang a hymn giving thanks to God. The old cardinals, except two who remained with the pope, escorted the new cardinals in procession to the altar of the Blessed Virgin and there the senior cardinal made them an eloquent discourse, invoking many blessings on them and on Holy Church. After this they returned to the pope, who dissolved the consistory and returned to his palace.
A like ceremony was held a few days later on the arrival of the cardinals of Rieti and Siena, one coming to Siena from Bologna and the other from Perugia. The pope praised the cardinal of Rieti as became his merits; the cardinal of Siena, since he was his own nephew and over-young, he said he should never have elevated if he had not been persuaded by the entreaties of the cardinals.
From The Commentaries of Pius II, book IV, trans. F. Gragg, L. Gabel, ed., Smith College Studies in History, vol. xxx (1947).
The Fourth Lateran Council
ROGER OF WENDOVER
1225
IN THE same year, namely, A.D. 1215, a sacred and general synod was held in the month of November, in the church of the Holy Saviour at Rome, called Constantian, at which our lord Pope Innocent [III], in the eighteenth year of his pontificate, presided, and which was attended by four hundred and twelve bishops. Amongst the principal of these were the two patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem. The patriarch of Antioch could not come, being detained by serious illness, but he sent his vicar, the bishop of Antaradus; the patriarch of Alexandria, being under the dominion of the Saracens, did the best he could, sending a deacon his cousin in his place. There were seventy-seven primates and metropolitans present, more than eight hundred abbats and priors; and of the proxies of archbishops, bishops, abbats, priors, and chapters who were absent the number is not known. There was also present a great multitude of ambassadors from the emperor of Constantinople, the king of Sicily, who was elected emperor of Rome, the kings of France, England, Hungary, Jerusalem, Cyprus, Aragon, and other princes and nobles, and from cities and other places. When all of these were assembled in the place above-mentioned, and, according to the custom of general councils, each was placed according to his rank, the pope himself first delivered an exhortation, and then the sixty articles were recited in full council, which seemed agreeable to some and tedious to others. At length he commenced to preach concerning the business of the cross, and the subjection of the Holy Land, adding as follows: “Moreover, that nothing be omitted in the matter of the cross of Christ, it is our will and command that patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, abbats, priors, and others, who have the charge of spiritual matters, carefully set forth the work of the cross to the people entrusted to their care; and in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, the one alone and eternal God, supplicate kings, dukes, princes, marquises, earls, barons, and other nobles, and also the communities of cities, towns, and villages, if they cannot go in person to the assistance of the Holy Land, to furnish a suitable number of soldiers, with all supplies necessary for three years, according to their means, in remission of their sins, as in the general letters is expressed; and it is also our will that those who build ships for this purpose be partakers in this remission. But to those who refuse, if any be so ungrateful, let it be on our behalf declared, that they will for a certainty account to us for this at the awful judgment of a rigorous Judge; considering, before they do refuse, with what chance of salvation they will be able to appear before the only God and the only-begotten Son of God, to whose hands the Father has entrusted all things, if they refuse to serve that Crucified One, in this their proper service, by whose gift they hold life, by whose kindness they are supported, and by whose blood they have been redeemed. And we, wishing to set an example to others, give and grant thirty thousand pounds for this business, besides a fleet, which we will supply to those who assume the cross from this city and the neighbouring districts; and we moreover assign for the accomplishment of this three thousand marks of silver, which remain to us out of the alms of some of the true faith. And as we desire to have the other prelates of the churches, and also the clergy in general, as partakers both in the merit and the reward, it is our decree, that all of them, both people and pastors, shall contribute for the assistance of the Holy Land the twentieth portion of their ecclesiastical profits for three years, except those who have assumed the cross or are about to assume it and set out for the Holy Land in person; and we and our brethren the cardinals of the Holy Church of Rome will pay a full tenth part of ours....
And we, trusting to the mercy of the omnipotent God, and to the authority of the blessed apostles Peter and Paul, by virtue of that power which the Lord has granted to us, unworthy though we are, of binding and loosing, grant to all who shall undertake this business in person and at their own expense full pardon for their sins, for which they shall be truly contrite in heart, and of which they shall have made confession; and in the rewarding of the just we promise an increase of eternal salvation; and to those who do not come in person, but at their own expense send suitable persons according to their means, and also to those who come in person though at the expense of others, we likewise grant full pardon for their sins.”
From Flowers of History, trans. J. A. Giles.
A French Provincial Synod
ODO OF RIGAUD
1259
FEBRUARY, 1259. At dawn, we arrived at the church of St. Aniane, and before we sat down in council, we celebrated mass in pontifical robes, our venerable brothers, our suffragans, being present with us, not rerobed for the celebration of the mass, with the deacon and subdeacon rerobed.... After mass was celebrated, we and our suffragans, all clad pontifically, went to our seats on the platform and there the deacon, rerobed, read the Gospel, namely, “Jesus appointed et cetera” [Luke x, 1]. This done, we began in a loud voice, “Veni Creator spiritus.” This sung, two rerobed in surplices chanted the litany before the altar. Then, after “Pater noster” in a low voice, we said the prayer, “Assumus.” This done, we preached the word of God, God Himself aiding us. Afterward the letter sent to the bishop of Bayeux concerning calling the council was read, and a rescript was read. Third, the procurations of the cathedral chapters were read. Fourth was read the constitution issued in general council [Lyon, 1245], concerning the councils to be held every year by the archbishops and their suffragans, which is contained in the section on purgations and reads, “As it was formerly,” and other constitutions of the same general council which seemed to be useful, and those decretals, “From inebriation, and drunkenness, et cetera.”
The procurators of the chapter of Rouen were: William, the treasurer, and John of Porta, archdeacon ...; of the chapter of Bayeux ... ; of the diocese of Evreux ... ; of the chapter of Lisieux ... ; of the chapter of Coutances ... ; of the chapter of Avranches... ; of the chapter of Séez ...; the procurator of the lord of Bayeux was Master Gerard of Corion, archdeacon of Bayeux.
Afterward, it was asked of the inquisitors, appointed in the other provincial council, what they wished to report. Some of them had retired, and those who had remained said that they did not wish to make any inquiries in the absence of their colleagues. Then we installed others, namely, in the diocese of Rouen ... deacons; also in the diocese of Avranches ...rectors; in the diocese of Evreux ... deacons....
And it should be known that in the celebration of the council, there sat next to us our venerable brothers: on our right, R. of Evreux, and F., bishop of Lisieux, G., bishop of Bayeux, being absent, who if he had been present would have sat near to us, before the two aforesaid bishops; at our left: R. of Avranches, Th. of Séez, and J. of Coutances.
Sixth, there were chos
en and read aloud certain statutes in the following form: it is pleasing to the holy council that those things which follow below should be strictly observed so that the reverend fathers, Odo, by God’s grace archbishop of Rouen, and his suffragans, and those subject to them, should in no wise be impeded in the observation of them, as if they had to be enacted anew, namely, in respect to those things which are found stated in law, either in the statutes of Pope Gregory IX, or in episcopal synods.
We wish that in respect to the expenses of procuration [hospitality], due by reason of visitation, which should be received by the archbishop and bishops, and in respect to the damage which should not be inflicted as a consequence of their accompanying officials, there should be observed what was established in the council of Lyon.
We wish that the statute of the general council against those who form leagues, and against the statutes issued contrary to the liberties of the Church, .should be frequently and solemnly proclaimed in the synods and parish churches, and the transgressors canonically punished.
We decree that secular powers seizing clerics with greater violence than the rebellion of the defendant demands, and detaining them, beyond or against the demand of the ecclesiastical judge, should be denounced as excommunicated by canon law in general, in particular, indeed, after it shall be clearly proved.
We strictly forbid that, in cases pertaining to the Church, a secular judge should be approached by ecclesiastical persons, especially concerning personal actions.
We decree that abbots and priors, and other ecclesiastical persons who receive the greater tithes in parish churches, should be compelled to maintain the building, books and ornaments, in proportion to what they collect in the same.
We wish that the synodal statute be firmly observed, namely that the ecclesiastical persons to whom come mandates of various judges, delegates, conservators, or executors, should carefully see that the names of the judges of the diocese and of the places to which they refer are authentic.
We forbid that any Christian men or women should dare to serve Jews in inns or to live with them, and we order that Jews be forced to wear clear signs by which they can be distinguished from Catholics.
We strongly forbid that any night revels or dances be carried on in cemeteries and holy places, ordering that the transgressors be canonically punished.
We solemnly warn clerks in churches, especially the unmarried ones, to bear a suitable tonsure; and crusaders in truth should be forced to wear the cross openly.
Concerning saddles, bridles, spurs, and gilded breast-plates or those having other superfluities to whom as clerics it is forbidden, and concerning the garments, closed above, to be worn by priests, we wish the statute of the general council to be observed.
We forbid that any beneficed clergy or any ordained in holy orders should be intent upon or addicted to hunting or fowling.
We decree that in abbeys and priories in which the resources are not diminished, the number of religious persons should be re-established, unless perhaps it is limited for the time by express licence of the superior and for a reasonable cause.
This which is established by law, that a monk should not stay anywhere alone, we wish and order to be observed.
Let the monks staying in priories which are not conventual be warned, with threat of suspension and excommunication, and, as it shall seem expedient, be induced to try to observe the statutes of Pope Gregory, so far as concerns eating meat, confessions, and fasting.
We decree that regulars should not stay with seculars, unless by diocesan or special licence.
The statute concerning loans to be drawn by religious, beyond a certain amount, except by licence of their abbot, should be strictly observed.
We order that rural deans, exercising jurisdiction, should not excommunicate or suspend except in writing.
We order that priests should not desist from the announcement of excommunication, no matter how much the parties make peace among themselves, unless it shall be lawfully established concerning the absolution of the excommunicated.
We wish that absolution should be done with proper solemnity.
We forbid priests that they should presume to excommunicate in general except for theft and injury, and with an adequate forewarning.
Also, we decree that chaplains to whom churches are committed for a time, should be carefully examined on grammar, on their way of life, and on their ordination.
These things so done, and the council celebrated harmoniously, we recessed singing, “Te Deum laudamus,” and we went before the altar of St. Aniane, and there, when the canticle was finished, we said certain suitable prayers.
From Regestrum visitationum archiepiscopi Rothomageusis, trans. J.B.R.
Letter to Henry II
THOMAS BECKET
1166
THESE are the words of the archbishop of Canterbury to the king of the English.
With desire I have desired to see your face and to speak with you; greatly for my own sake but more for yours. For my sake, that when you saw my face you might recall to memory the services which, when I was under your obedience, I rendered faithfully and zealously to the best of my conscience... and that so you might be moved to pity me, who am forced to beg my bread among strangers; yet, thanks be to God, I have an abundance.... For your sake for three causes: because you are my lord, because you are my king, and because you are my spiritual son. In that you are my lord I owe and offer to you my counsel and service, such as a bishop owes to his lord according to the honour of God and the holy Church. And in that you are my king I am bound to you in reverence and regard. In that you are my son I am bound by reason of my office to chasten and correct you.... Christ founded the Church and purchased her liberty with His blood, undergoing the scourging and spitting, the nails, and the anguish of death, leaving us an example that we should follow in His steps. Whence also saith the apostle, “If we suffer with Him we shall also reign with Him. If we die with Him, with Him we shall rise again.”
The Church of God consists of two orders, clergy and people. Among the clergy are apostles, apostolic men, bishops, and other doctors of the Church, to whom is committed the care and governance of the Church, who have to perform ecclesiastical business, that the whole may redound to the saving of souls. Whence also it was said to Peter, and in Peter to the other rulers of the Church, not to kings nor to princes, “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it ”
Among the people are kings, princes, dukes, earls, and other powers, who perform secular business, that the whole may conduce to the peace and unity of the Church. And since it is certain that kings receive their power from the Church, not she from them but from Christ, so, if I may speak with your pardon, you have not the power to give rules to bishops, nor to absolve or excommunicate anyone, to draw clerks before secular tribunals, to judge concerning churches and tithes, to forbid bishops to adjudge causes concerning breach of faith or oath, and many other things of this sort which are written among your customs which you call ancient. Let my lord, therefore, if it pleases him, listen to the counsel of his subject, to the warnings of his bishop, and to the chastisement of his father. And first let him for the future abstain from all communion with schismatics. It is known almost to the whole world with what devotion you formerly received our lord the pope and what attachment you showed to the Church of Rome, and also what respect and deference were shown you in return. Forbear then, my lord, if you value your soul, to deprive that Church of her rights. Remember also the promise which you made, and which you placed in writing on the altar at Westminster when you were consecrated and anointed king by my predecessor, of preserving to the Church her liberty. Restore therefore to the Church of Canterbury, from which you received your promotion and consecration, the rank which it held in the time of your predecessors and mine; together with all its possessions, townships, castles, and farms, and whatsoever else has been taken by violence either from myself or my dependents,
laymen as well as clerks. And further, if so please you, permit us to return free and in peace, and with all security to our see, to perform the duties of our office as we ought. And we are ready faithfully and devotedly with all our strength to serve you as our dearest lord and king with all our strength in whatsoever we are able, saving the honour of God and of the Roman Church, and saving our order. Otherwise, know for certain that you shall feel the divine severity and vengeance.
From St. Thomas of Canterbury, W. H. Hutton, ed. (London: D. Nutt, 1889).
The Temporal Authorities
The Nature of a True Prince
JOHN OF SALISBURY
Twelfth century
THE PRINCE AND THE LAW
BETWEEN a tyrant and a prince there is this single or chief difference, that the latter obeys the law and rules the people by its dictates, accounting himself as but their servant. It is by virtue of the law that he makes good his claim to the foremost and chief place in the management of the affairs of the commonwealth and in the bearing of its burdens; and his elevation over others consists in this, that whereas private men are held responsible only for their private affairs, on the prince fall the burdens of the whole community. Wherefore deservedly there is conferred on him, and gathered together in his hands, the power of all his subjects, to the end that he may be sufficient unto himself in seeking and bringing about the advantage of each individually, and of all; and to the end that the state of the human commonwealth may be ordered in the best possible manner, seeing that each and all are members one of another. Wherein we indeed but follow nature, the best guide of life; for nature has gathered together all the senses of her microcosm or little world, which is man, into the head, and has subjected all the members in obedience to it in such wise that they will all function properly so long as they follow the guidance of the head, and the head remains sane. Therefore the prince stands on a pinnacle which is exalted and made splendid with all the great and high privileges which he deems necessary for himself. And rightly so, because nothing is more advantageous to the people than that the needs of the prince should be fully satisfied; since it is impossible that his will should be found opposed to justice. Therefore, according to the usual definition, the prince is the public power, and a kind of likeness on earth of the divine majesty. Beyond doubt a large share of the divine power is shown to be in princes by the fact that at their nod men bow their necks and for the most part offer up their heads to the axe to be struck off, and, as by a divine impulse, the prince is feared by each of those over whom he is set as an object of fear. And this I do not think could be, except as a result of the will of God. For all power is from the Lord God, and has been with Him always, and is from everlasting. The power which the prince has is therefore from God, for the power of God is never lost, nor severed from Him, but He merely exercises it through a subordinate hand, making all things teach His mercy or justice. “Who, therefore, resists the ruling power, resists the ordinance of God,” in whose hand is the authority of conferring that power, and when He so desires, of withdrawing it again, or diminishing it. For it is not the ruler’s own act when his will is turned to cruelty against his subjects, but it is rather the dispensation of God for His good pleasure to punish or chasten them....
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