social support, for childhood trauma survivors, 167–68, 350
socioeconomic stress, disorganized attachment and, 117–18
Solomon, Richard, 32
Solomon, Roger, 260
somatic experiencing, 217–18
Somme, Battle of the (1916), 185
soothing, arousal and, 113
Sophocles, 332
South Africa, 213–14, 333, 349
Southborough Report, shell-shock diagnosis rejected by, 185
Southwick, Steve, 30
Sowell, Nancy, 291
speech centers (brain), 42, 43
Sperry, Roger, 51
Spinazzola, Joseph, 156, 339, 351
Spitzer, Robert, 142
Sroufe, Alan, 160–61, 166
Steel, Kathy, 281
Sterman, Barry, 315
Stern, Jessica, 7
Stickgold, Robert, 260, 261
stimuli:
adjustment to, 32
hypersensitivity to, see threat, hypersensitivity to
Story of My Life, The (Keller), 234
Strange Situation, 115
stress:
gene expression and, 152
immune function and, 240
see also trauma
stress hormones, 30, 42, 46, 60, 61, 66–67, 158, 162, 217, 233
structural dissociation model, 281
structures, in psychomotor therapy, 298–308
subcortical brain structures, 95
submissiveness, 97, 218
subpersonalities, 280–95
substance abuse, 70, 120, 146, 151, 225, 266
neurofeedback and, 327–28
withdrawal and, 32, 327
suicidal behavior and thoughts, 24, 28, 88, 120, 138, 141, 146, 147, 150, 151, 154, 256, 287, 316, 332
suicide by cop, 182
Summit, Roland, 131, 136
Suomi, Stephen, 153–54, 160
superior temporal cortex, 386n
sympathetic nervous system (SNS), 77, 82, 82, 209, 266–67
Szyf, Moshe, 152
tai chi, 207–8
talk therapy (talking cure), 22, 27, 36, 72, 181–82, 230–37, 253
experience vs. telling in, 235–36
TAQ, see Traumatic Antecedents Questionaire (TAQ)
Tavistock Clinic, 109
Teicher, Martin, 140, 149, 416n
temporal lobe abnormalities, 416n
temporal parietal junction, 100
tension, in trauma survivors, 100–101, 265–66
terrorism:
PTSD from, 348
see also September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
testosterone, 163
thalamocortical networks, 417n
thalamus, 60, 70–71, 176, 324
theater, in trauma recovery, 214, 330–32, 334–46, 355
conflict and, 335
emotions and, 335, 344–45
feeling safe in, 336–37
Theater of War, 332
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 106–7
therapists, in trauma recovery, 212–13, 244
theta waves, 321, 326, 417n
Thorazine (chlorpromazine), 22–23
thoughts, physical sensations and, 209
threat:
confusion of safety and, 85, 97, 119, 164
hypersensitivity to, 2, 11, 17, 33, 45–47, 68, 84, 95, 102, 143, 158, 161, 163, 196–97, 225, 265, 310, 327, 328, 408n
social engagement as response to, 80–81, 82, 88
whole-body response to, 53–55, 53, 60–62, 61
see also fight/flight response; freeze response (immobilization)
time, sense of, 273
Tourette, Gilles de la, 177
trance (hypnagogic) states, 117, 187, 238, 302, 305, 326
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 417n
trauma:
articulation of, 232–34
brain changes from, 2–3, 21, 59, 347
growing awareness of, 347
as most urgent public health issue, 148, 149–50, 356
narratives of, 7, 43, 46, 70, 130, 135, 175, 176, 194, 219, 220, 231, 250, 252–53, 261–62; see also traumatic memory
physiological changes from, 2–3, 21, 53, 53, 72
prevalence of, 1
reactivation of, 2
risk of, socioeconomic status and, 348
trauma, healing from, 203–29
animal therapy in, 80, 150–51, 213
ARC model in, 401n
art and, 242–43
body therapies for, 3, 26, 72, 86, 89, 207–8, 215–17, 228–29, 245; see also specific therapies
calming and relaxation techniques in, 131, 203–4; see also breathing; mindfulness; yoga
CBT in, 182, 194, 220–21
community in, 213–14, 244, 331–34, 355
desensitization therapies in, 46–47, 73, 220, 222–23
EMDR therapy in, see eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)
emotional self-regulation in, 203–4, 206–8, 212, 353, 401n
feeling safe in, 204, 212, 270, 275, 300, 301, 349, 353
focus in, 203, 347–48, 355
giving up self-deceit in, 204
IFS therapy in, see internal family systems (IFS) therapy
integrating traumatic memories in, 181, 219–20, 222, 228, 237, 279
language and, 230–47, 275–76
limbic system therapy in, 205–6
living in present as goal of, 204
mindfulness in, 207, 208–10, 224, 225, 269, 270
music in, 242–43, 349, 355
need to revisit trauma in, 204–5, 211
neurofeedback in, see neurofeedback
professional therapists for, 212–13, 244
psychomotor therapy in, 296–308
reestablishing ownership of one’s self as goal of, 204–5
relationships in, 204, 210–13
rhythmic movement and, 85, 207, 208, 214, 242–43, 333–34, 349
schools as resources for, 351–56
search for meaning in, 233–34
self-awareness in, 208, 235–38, 273, 347
self-leadership in, 203, 280–95
sensorimotor therapy in, 96, 214–15
singing and chanting in, 86, 214
talk therapy in, 230–37, 253
theater in, see theater, in trauma recovery
writing and, 238–42
yoga in, 63, 86, 207, 225, 228–29, 231, 263–76
Trauma and Recovery (Herman), 189
Trauma Center, 3–4, 72, 85, 86, 121, 122, 163–64, 166, 214–15, 228, 266, 269, 271, 340, 351
neurofeedback laboratory at, 318–20, 324
Trauma Drama program of, 335, 336–37, 339, 355
Urban Improv study of, 338–39
Trauma Clinic, 35, 251, 253
trauma survivors:
alexithymia in, 98–99, 247, 272–73, 291, 319
blaming in, 45
brain scans of, 39–47, 42, 66, 68–70, 68, 71–72, 72, 82, 99–100, 319
brain-wave patterns in, 311–12, 311, 324
continued stress mobilization in, 53–55, 53
denial in, 46, 291
depersonalization in, 71–73, 71, 99–100, 132–33, 286, 291, 386n, 401n
derealization in, 401n
dissociation in, 66–68, 95, 172, 179, 180–81, 194, 211, 247, 281, 294, 316, 317–18
distorted perception of safety in, 79–80, 85, 96–97, 119, 164, 270
fear of emotions in, 335
fear of experimentation in, 305
flashbacks in, 40, 42, 45
, 70, 176, 193–94, 219
freeze response (immobilization) in, 54, 54, 80, 82–83, 82, 85, 95, 217, 218
handwriting of, 241–42
helplessness of, 217, 341
hypersensitivity to threat in, 2, 61–62, 84
immune systems of, 126–27, 291
inner void in, 296–308
intimacy as difficult for, 99
irritability and rage in, 46, 95, 99
language failure in, 43–44, 243–45, 352–53
limbic system in, 59, 95, 265
living in present as difficult for, 67, 70, 73, 312
loss of imagination in, 17, 96
loss of purpose in, 92, 233
medication and, 3
memory and attention problems in, 46
nightmares in, 44
numbing in, 67, 84, 119, 205, 247, 272, 304–5, 306
panic attacks in, 97
polarization of self-system in, 281
reciprocity and, 79–80
reenacting in, 31–33, 179, 180, 181, 182
self-harming in, 266, 288–89
self-protective strategies of, 278–79
sensation seeking in, 266, 272
sense of self in, 166, 233, 247
sense of time in, 273
sensory overload in, 70–71
sensory self-awareness in, 89, 96, 247, 418n
shame in, 102, 138, 211, 300
sleep disorders in, 46, 95
social engagement and, 3, 62, 78–80, 84, 86, 161, 349
somatic symptoms in, 97–98
stress hormone levels in, 30
substance abuse by, 70, 120, 146, 151, 225, 266
tension and defensiveness in, 100–101, 265–66
trust as difficult for, 18, 134, 141, 150, 158, 163, 253
see also childhood trauma survivors; PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder)
Traumatic Antecedents Questionaire (TAQ), 138–40, 141
traumatic memory, 171–83, 246–47, 278
as disorganized, 193
hysteria as, see hysteria
integration of, 181, 219–20, 222, 228, 237, 255–56, 261–62, 279, 308
narrative memory vs., 176, 179, 194, 219, 231–32, 236
normal memory vs., 175–76, 180, 181, 189, 192–94, 219, 372n
“railway spine” as, 177
see also repressed memory
Traumatic Neuroses of War, The (Kardiner), 11, 187
Trevarthen, Colwyn, 111
Trickett, Penelope, 161–63
triggered responses, 66–68
Tronick, Ed, 84, 112
trust, difficulty of, 18, 134, 141, 150, 158, 163, 253
Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 213–14, 333, 349
Tutu, Desmond, 333
Ubuntu, 349
United States Association for Body Psychotherapy, 297
Urban Improv, 334–35
Trauma Center study of, 337–39
vagus nerve, 76, 78, 80–82, 81, 207, 245
Valium, 225
valproate, 136, 225, 405n
van der Hart, Onno, 281, 396n
Van der Kolk Center, 213, 401n
vasopressin, 223
ventral vagal complex (VVC), 81–82,
82, 83–84
development of, 84
Versailles, Treaty of (1919), 186
Veterans Administration (VA):
Boston Clinic of, 7, 10, 11, 12, 187–88, 227, 331
PTSD and, 19, 222–23, 226–27, 244–45
Veterans Affairs Department, U.S, 156, 224, 255
Vietnam veterans, 7–8, 12, 15, 17–18, 33, 156, 182, 187–88, 190, 222–23, 227, 233–34
visual cortex, 42, 44
voice, responses to, 85–86
Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, 322
War Is a Force That Gives Us Meaning (Hedges), 31
Warner, Liz, 214, 418
Warren, Robert Penn, 22
Werner, Emily, 392n
“What Is an Emotion?” (James), 89–90
What It Is Like to Go to War (Marlantes), 233
“When the Patient Reports Atrocities” (Haley), 13
Wiesel, Elie, 356
Williams, Dar, 203
Williams, Linda Meyer, 190–91
Wilson, Scott, 126
Winfrey, Oprah, 356
Winnicott, Donald, 109, 113–14
witnesses, in psychomotor therapy, 297, 300, 301, 306
Woodman, Marion, 230
World Enough and Time (Warren), 22
World I Live In, The (Keller), 235
World War I, 243–44
shell-shock in, 11, 184–86, 189
World War II, 9, 210
combat trauma in, 187–88
veterans of, 18, 53, 187, 188
writing, in trauma recovery, 238–42
Xanax, 225
Yale University, Fortunoff Video Archive at, 195
Yehuda, Rachel, 30, 118
yoga, 63, 86, 231, 263–76, 354
asanas (postures) in, 270, 272
clinical studies of, 273–75, 274
HRV and, 268–69, 271
interoception and, 272–74
meditation in, 270
pranayama (breathing) in,
86, 270
PTSD and, 207, 228–29, 268–69, 270
self-regulation and, 271–72, 274, 275
Yoga and the Quest for the True Self (Cope), 263, 272
Zaichkowsky, Len, 322
Zoloft, 35, 225, 254
Zyprexa, 37, 101
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