by Bob Curran
4
Yggdrasil
Trees have always featured heavily in many ancient mythologies; for example, the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil in the Garden of Eden in Semitic folklore; and the apple trees on the Isle of the Blest, in the Garden of the Hesperides (or in Avalon in Greek, Roman, and Celtic legends). It is not surprising, therefore, to find the tree motif once again in both Norse and early Germanic mythology.
In such legends, the tree is known as Yggdrasil and, although no indication is given as to its exact location, both its roots and branches span a multitude of realities. Tradition describes it as a monstrous ash, and often uses the term “world tree” to denote its massive span.
The Making of Yggdrasil
The name Yggdrasil (Old Norse: Yggdrasill) is a curious one, and does not relate to a tree at all. Rather, it translates directly as “terrible steed,” referring to a horse. However, Viking mythology provides an explanation for this: It is said that an ancient name for the supreme Norse god Odin was Ygg, and in order to obtain great knowledge (apparently derived from Mimir, an extremely ancient primal god who possessed great wisdom), he hung from the branches of the tree for nine nights. He obtained the wisdom in the form of runes and thereafter the tree became known as Yggdrasil (or Odin’s steed). The purpose of the Great Tree, however, spanned its roots and branches, embodying almost every mythological existence known to the early Norse and Germanic peoples. Thus, its branches extended upward into the realm of the gods, somewhere beyond the clouds, while its roots descended deep into the Underworld where the shriveled spirits of the damned and wicked dwelt. The Great Tree connected all these separate realities and presumably provided passage between them. In Norse mythology, three main existences were to be found along its spreading branches. These were: Asgard, which was a general realm of the gods; Vanaheim, which were a specific race or clan of gods ruled by a very ancient god named Njod; and Alfheim, the home of elves and other lesser supernatural figures.
Realms of the Tree
The trunk of Yggdrasil cut straight through the realm of Midgard, or Middengard, which was the home of humans (our world). This was surrounded by the realm of Jotunheimr, which was the kingdom of giants, and by Niovellir, or Dark Fields, the land of the dwarves who often made weapons for the gods. The roots of the Tree stretched into the Underworld and down to the realm of Hel, which took its name from the dark goddess who ruled over it. (She herself dwelt in Eliudnir, a realm or great hall similar to Valhalla.) Also in the Underworld lay the realm of Muspelheim, or the kingdom of fire, ruled over by the fire demon Surtur (sometimes rendered as Surt). The last of the nine existences that bordered on the Tree was Nefelheim, the land of the Frost Giants who were fierce and aggressive, and who blew snow-flecked winds whenever they roared or shouted.
In Scandinavian mythology, Yggdrasil was fed through its roots by three springs or wells. The first and most sacred was in the realm of Asgard, general home of the gods. This was the Well of Urd (Urdarbruner meaning fate) and the root was tended by three wise women known as Norns. These three ancient crones were initially regarded as the repositories of all worldly knowledge (something similar to the Sybils of Roman mythology), but later became equated with the span of each mortal’s life, as were the Greek Fates. They seem to have been more powerful than even the gods who left them alone to tend the root of the tree—watering it from the ancient fountain at Urd, so that its sap remained green. The root that grew halfway along the trunk lay in Jotunheimr, the land of the giants, and was reputedly guarded by a number of fierce ogres. The Well of Mimir was named after the primal deity, and was said to be the oldest, and perhaps most potent, of all the springs that served the Great Tree.
The last of the three wells from which Yggdrasil’s roots drew their nourishment lay deep in the Underworld. This was the Well of Hvergelmir, which means either “roaring cauldron” or “roaring kettle.” This well was in the deepest part of the Underworld, and the waters that surrounded the root were so fierce that not even the wasted souls that inhabited the area could approach it. However, as is usual in Norse mythology, there are variants and complications. Yggdrasil is alternately known by a number of other names, perhaps reflecting the myriad of Northern influences on Scandinavian mythology, two of which are Mimameir and Larao. As Mimameir—the Well of Mimir—it was also believed to have a root in Valhalla, which was the final resting place of the heroic dead where they feasted and sported themselves. The shoots from this root fed the sacred goat, the einhejar, which provided milk for the goblets of the dead heroes as they sat around tables in Valhalla. The goat feasted on the green, and in turn supplied the most delectable milk for the warriors to drink.
Legends of the Great Tree
The legends concerning the Great Tree can be partly credited to two medieval texts written in Iceland around the 12th and 13th centuries. These were the Poetic and Prose Eddas, which formed a core for much of early Scandinavian literature. The Poetic Edda, or the Codex Regius, is deemed to be the oldest and, though it has long since vanished (around the 17th century), used as source material by later Norse writers. Written in Old Norse, it was certainly in the hands of Brynjofr Sveinson, Bishop of Skaholt (1605–1675), who sent it to the Norwegian king, hence its Latin name. He had attributed it to an early medieval Icelandic writer Seamunder Froi, or Seamunder the Learned (1056–1133). However, later scholars have dismissed this and attribute the work to a variety of writers—perhaps to monks writing in the Icelandic monasteries of the early 1100s. The Edda is a collection of poems relating to ancient legends that were probably passed down orally, among which is that of Yggdrasil. Some of the themes in the Poetic Edda formed the basis for the Prose Edda written by the influential Icelandic historian, poet, and politician Snorri Sturluson (1178–1241). As a mythographer, Sturluson investigated many of the old Scandinavian tales, writing them down and seeking to interpret them, and it is through him that stories about Yggdrasil continue to appear. Additions may also have been made to it from a number of other Northern traditions around the time that he was writing.
Protection of the Tree
As a tree, Yggdrasil was often subject to damage from the amount of creatures who lived along its length in the nine probable existences, and who sheltered under its branches. But there were other vandals, too. For example, the trunk of the Great Tree was under almost constant attack from Ratatosk, the great squirrel whose name meant “swift teeth,” and who was a notorious gossip and mischief maker. His function was also that of messenger between the various existences along the tree, particularly between the gods in Asgard and the men in Midgard.
And around the deepest roots, far below even the realm of Hel, lay the great serpent Nidhogg, or “tearer of corpses.” This serpent had encircled the entire root in the Underworld, and continually gnawed at it, threatening to bring Yggdrasil down. His sustenance was the corpses of the dead, and his mission in life was to destroy the World Tree, which he would eventually do on Ragnarok, the last day of all things. However, Nidhogg was not the only serpent that was trying to destroy Yggdrasil. There was also Vidofnir, whose name simply meant “tree snake”; he lived along the length of the Tree, traveling up and down its trunk. Similar to Ratatosk, he ate the bark of the Tree seeking to destroy it and hasten the day of Ragnarok when all the realms would come to an end—even those of the gods—and existence would be consumed in fire and ice. A number of other serpents also traveled along the length of the Great Tree, gnawing at its bark, and stripping it away. Among these were Goin and Moin, who were considered to be especially poisonous, and infected Yggdresil with their venom. Such poison would eventually weaken the Tree.
Ragnarok
Indeed, Yggdrasil was central to the myths of Ragnarok, as its falling signaled the end of the Universe, which it supported, and in some myths, opened the way for a new breed of gods to set up their realms along the fallen trunk. Its fall came about when Nidhogg finally succeeded in gnawing completely through the supporting root in the Underwo
rld, and at the same time, a number of the other pests managed to devour the roots in the other spheres of existence. The Great Tree toppled over, destroying everything that existed along its length, causing the realms of the gods, men, elves, and dwarves to pass away.
Shortly before Yggdrasil fell, all realms along its length would experience Fimbulveter—the Winter of Winters. This was a period of intense coldness that wrapped itself around the Great Tree, paralyzing all the existences except the realm of the Frost Giants. Yggdrasil itself started to wither. This made it easier for creatures such as Ratatosk, Goin, and Moin to burrow their way down to Yggdrasil’s heart and kill it, the venom from the serpents now poisoning the wood. Yggdrasil started to groan and sway—a signal of the approaching end. Along with this, wars between men, giants, and gods began throughout the existences and into this conflict, elves, dwarves, and other such beings were drawn. Great warfare broke out, and this too threatened the continuance of the Tree. The conflicts reached the realm of Mulpelheim, the region of fire, and infuriated the demon Surtur, who ruled there. As Yggdrasil fell, he arose from his fiery pit and attacked the Tree himself. His great breath consumed the Tree, reducing it to ashes, and so signaling the end of Ragnarok. Nothing was left and yet, out of Yggdrasil’s ashes, new life emerged, just as new life arose from shattered and burned trees in the forest. Two humans were said to have survived Surtur’s fire by hiding in the ruins of Yggdrasil. Their names are Lif and Lifthraser, and they formed the nucleus of a new race, which would inhabit the realm of Midgard. They were, in fact, the poetic symbols of life and hope.
Where Is the Great Tree?
Where exactly was Yggdrasil? Could it be placed in some specific location? If not, how did the beliefs come about? The ancient texts, particularly the Eddas, give no exact location for the Great Tree. In a sense, the ancients believed that it had a root in every world and in all of the nine possible existences. And yet, it also seemed to have an existence of its own, which was independent of them all. However, similar to the Otherworld of Celtic myth, no actual geographical location was actually attributed to it, though some traditions claimed that its branches could sometimes be seen, stretching against the sky when viewed from a certain valley in the “dark lands of the North.” However, the location of this valley was always as obscure as that of Yggdrasil itself. It has been suggested that the movement of cirrus clouds, when viewed from some of the northern valleys, might be mistaken for the branches of a gigantic tree.
Other Tree Legends
However, there may have been other origins for the belief in Yggdrasil. Many students of myths and legends have noted that the Norse, Saxon, and Germanic peoples have a widespread tradition of tree worship, and Yggdrasil was not the only mighty growth that was prominent in such belief.
For instance, in the sacred temple grounds at Uppsala in Sweden, a tree known as “the Sacred Tree of Uppsala” grew. Although accounts of this tree are sparse, it was certainly an actual growth—reputedly an evergreen of unknown type (although it may have been an oak)—and is mentioned by the important German medieval chronicler, Adam of Bremen, who lived in the latter half of the 11th century. Not much is known about the temple near which it stood except that it was very old and had originally been raised for some sort of prehistoric gods, perhaps connected to the growth itself. It was also said that human sacrifice was carried on at this tree, and members of various Swedish ruling houses may pay homage there. What became of this great tree is unknown, but it is probable that early Christian missionaries to Sweden may have cut it down. Could the idea of this Pagan tree at Uppsala have formed the basis for a belief in Yggdrasil?
There is also reference in early Germanic folklore to a special pillar made of oak that connected both Heaven and Hell. This was known as Irmimsul (meaning “great pillar” or “Irmin’s pillar” in Old Saxon), and it took its name from an ancient Germanic god named Irmin. It was from Irmin’s father, Manus that the Germanic peoples claimed descent, and Irmin himself was reputedly the father of a tribe known as the Irminones who inhabited parts of modern-day northern Germany. According to the Germanic tradition, Irmin himself erected the pillar, which he carved from a massive oak tree, so he could easily communicate with his father who reputedly lived in the clouds. It was said to have been located in an area known as the Teutoburger Wald (or Teutoburger Forest) in northwestern Germany—the area refers to a particularly forested mountain area in Lower Saxony. Interestingly enough, something similar to the pillar appears in 12th-century Middle Eastern Christian art; the form appears to be similar to a tree at the feet of Nicodemus (who hid in a tree so that he could listen to the teachings of Jesus). Perhaps this shows the absorption of some Pagan ideas into the developing Christian tradition.
There were many other instances of tree worship among the Germanic and Nordic peoples. There was a tradition, the origins of which have been lost, of decorating fir trees and leaving offerings beneath it to placate the spirits. In later Christian times, this tradition became known as that of the “Paradise Tree,” which reputedly had connections into the Garden of Eden, supposedly representing the Tree of Life that grew there. Nonetheless, old Pagan traditions still persisted beneath the surface. These may form the basis of the traditional idea of the Christmas tree, decorated with lights and baubles, and with presents (“offerings”) lying underneath it.
There were many more instances of tree-worship, particularly among the Germanic and Nordic peoples, encountered by the early Christians. Most notable was the famous Thor’s Oak, which was dedicated to the Scandinavian/Germanic god Thor, and at which human sacrifice was reputedly carried out. This was the sacred site of a Germanic tribe known as the Chatti, and was located near the village of Geismer, which would later become part of the modern-day town of Fritzler in Northern Hesse. It is believed that human sacrifice to Pagan gods was carried on there. This so shocked St. Boniface (680–755) that he cut down the oak and challenged Thor to strike him down for doing so. When the gods did not, many of the Chatti converted to Christianity. Later, the story became slightly muddled and, taking the saint’s Saxon name of Winfryth, many chroniclers attributed the “miracle” to St. Winfred and changed the location of the tree to England. It is also recounted that various holy men such as Boniface’s companion, St. Wigbert (around 734), cut down similar trees in parts of present-day Germany. Could legends surrounding these trees have come together in mythology to form the basis of Yggdrasil?
Christianity and Yggdrasil
The idea of trees and their death (that is, crucifixion) also played a very important part in the transition from Pagan to Christian thinking, particularly in the Nordic/Germanic world. According to the Christian faith, Jesus Christ was crucified on a wooden cross (sometimes referred to as a “tree” in Christian iconography). This had its parallels in Norse mythology when Odin hung on the branches of Yggdrasil for nine nights. This act of self-sacrifice was done in order to gain knowledge of the infinite, which made Odin a chieftain among the gods. Such imagery would, it is assumed, have made the Norse tribes more easily converted to the new Christian gospel. It is possible, of course, that this part of the Yggdrasil legend was added much later by Christian monks, specifically for the purpose of impressing the Pagans and obtaining converts. But the closeness of the early Norse mythology and later Christianity cannot be ignored.
Was Yggdrasil an actual place or was it something more abstract? The suggestion is that it was probably more of an ideal than a specific location. It combined notions of an Otherworld with a kind of connectivity between the various forms of Norse mythology. As such, it may have represented cohesion between various ideas of mythological places and gave them some shape, meaning, and place in the Universe. It may also have provided a link with earlier tree myths and sites of tree worship, as well as with primal gods and beliefs. Whether Yggdrasil existed as a specific geographical location or not, it was still similar to many other mythological places: an important factor in ancient mythology and legend that has served to
inspire writers and poets to this day.
5
Hy-Brasil
Although not strictly considered a sunken land (that is, it was never overwhelmed by an ancient catastrophe and subsequently consigned to the depths of the ocean), Hy-Brasil nevertheless has many features that can link it to places such as Atlantis and Lemuria. However, the concept of Hy-Brasil may actually be an amalgam of a number of so-called “phantom isles” or “lost lands,” which appear largely in Celtic mythology and folklore.
Initially, the concept of Hy-Brasil may have been little more than an extension to the Celtic Otherworld, perhaps inspired by cloud formations glimpsed far out at sea, which may have suggested the cliffs and headlands of an unknown, supernatural country. Maybe, it was assumed, the gods or the dead lived there. However, with the passage of time, other concepts may have crept in, shaping this idea and giving it substance, but still keeping the supernatural element intact. As seamen voyaged further and further across the world, they encountered other unknown lands—some of which were maybe no more than glimpsed on the horizon during the course of their journey—which they may have later imbued with many strange and wonderful attributes, or may have associated with magical and mysterious notions. Of course, many of these so-called “landmasses” were no more than cloud formations or sea animals that, in often uncertain light, took on the appearance of far-away shorelines. Some voyagers, however, actually did visit relatively unknown lands—islands in remote areas of the oceans, for example—and gradually their stories became tales of wonder and imagination as they were told and retold. All of these elements, impressions glimpsed in the half-light or a part of the mysterious Otherworld, gradually coalesced and formed themselves in the idea of a single land, Hy-Brasil, Brasil, or Brazil, or the Island O’Brasil, which is primarily an Irish version of the idea. Just to add some complexity to the notion, the location is also known under a number of other names (Green Island, Isle of Maam, St. Brendan’s Island), and may be sunken or merely obscured from mortal view, depending on the version of the story. In most cases, a direct view of it is believed to be hindered by heavy clouds or mists, which permanently surround it. Although many claim sightings of it (usually of the briefest sort), few seem to have actually been there.
