16. Robert Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman: The Life of Heydrich (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 42–52, Kindle.
17. Plan LADYSHIP Progress Report, February 3, 1954, CIA name file for Walter [sic] Rauff, CIA, www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/RAUFF%2C%20WALTER_0088.pdf (accessed July 23, 2018).
18. Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 51.
19. Cüppers, Rauff, 81.
20. Cüppers, Rauff, 93–97; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 148; Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939–March 1942 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2004), 25–26. Cüppers writes that Best conducted the meeting. Browning and Gerwarth state that Heydrich himself led this meeting, as he did the subsequent ones. However, Gerwarth also writes that Heydrich was on an inspection tour in Poland at the time, leaving Best in his place in Berlin (142).
21. Patrick Bernhard, “Hitler’s Africa in the East: Italian Colonialism as a Model for German Planning in Eastern Europe,” Journal of Contemporary History 51, no. 1 (2015): 61–90. I am grateful to Patrick Bernhard for sharing his insights with me in conversation and correspondence.
22. Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 148–150; Cüppers, Rauff, 93–97.
23. Cüppers, Rauff, 97.
24. Jan Stanislaw Ciechanowski, “The Polish Contribution to Cracking the German Enigma Code,” in Marian Rejewski, 1905–1980: Living with the Enigma Secret, ed. Jan Stanislaw Ciechanowski et al. (Bydgoszcz: Bydgoszcz City Council, 2005), 108–109.
25. Liddell Hart, Second World War, 30.
26. See, for instance, Ciechanowski et al., Rejewski, frontispiece.
27. Richard A. Woytak, “A Conversation with Marian Rejewski,” Cryptologia 6, no. 1 (1982): 50–60; Christopher Kasparek and Richard A. Woyak, “In Memoriam Marian Rejewski,” Cryptologia 6, no. 1 (1982): 20.
28. Woytak, “Conversation,” 52.
29. Watkins, Underage and Overseas, chap. 1.
30. “The Glow-Lamp Ciphering and Deciphering Machine,” Cryptologia 25, no. 3 (2001): 172.
31. “The Glow-Lamp,” 161–169.
32. The description of Enigma’s workings is based on numerous sources, including Marian Rejewski, “Mathematical Solution of the Enigma Cipher,” Cryptologia 6, no. 1 (1982): 1–18; Welchman, Hut Six, 38–47; Greenberg, Welchman, 15–16, 201–203. The number of settings in the original Enigma was the multiple of 6 wheel orders, 26 × 26 × 26 ring settings, and 26 × 26 × 26 wheel settings, equaling 1,853,494,656.
33. Ciechanowski, “Polish Contribution,” 99.
34. Marian Rejewski, “Remarks on Appendix I to British Intelligence in the Second World War by F. H. Hinsley,” Cryptologia 6, no. 1 (1982): 76. The number of permutations for each wheel is the factorial of 26 (26!). For three wheels, the number of permutations is the cube of the number for a single wheel. In addition, the Enigma had a reflector wheel with contacts on one side only. Each contact was wired to another on that side. The number of permutations for this wheel equaled 25 × 23 × 21 × 19 × 17 × 15 × 13 × 11 × 9 × 7 × 5 × 3. Multiplying this by the total permutations for the three rotors produces the total for the device: 5.18568 × 1092.
35. In Woytak (“Conversation,” 52–55), Rejewski says he started at the Cypher Bureau in Warsaw at the start of September 1932 and began working on Enigma in late October or early November. Ciechanowski (“Polish Contribution,” 103) states that by mid-January, the trio was reading intercepted Enigma messages. This includes the time to solve the daily settings. Rejewski’s solution of the wiring may have taken as little as two months.
36. Kasparek and Woyak, “In Memoriam Marian Rejewski,” 20.
37. Rejewski, “Remarks,” 80.
38. Ciechanowski, “Polish Contribution,” 109.
ACT I. CHAPTER 2. THE SEDUCTIVE CURVES OF THE DUNES
1. Ralph A. Bagnold, Sand, Wind and War: Memoirs of a Desert Explorer (Tucson: University of Arizona, 1990), 119.
2. Saul Kelly, The Lost Oasis: The Desert War and the Hunt for Zerzura (Oxford, UK: Westview, 2002), 15–16.
3. This is the date that Bagnold gives in his memoir Sand, Wind (49). In an earlier account, he gave the year as 1925: Ralph A. Bagnold, Libyan Sands: Travels in a Dead World (London: Howard and Stoughton, 1941), 19.
4. Bagnold, Sand, Wind, 51–60; Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 31–87.
5. Herodotus, The Histories, 3: 26.
6. Kelly, Lost Oasis, 11–12; Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 114–116, 141–146.
7. This was Bagnold’s description (Libyan Sands, 165–166).
8. The detailed account of this journey is A. M. Hassanein Bey, The Lost Oases (New York and London: Century, 1925). See also Kelly, Lost Oasis, 9–10; Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 171–172.
9. Hassanein Bey, Lost Oases, 6.
10. Michael Haag, “Ahmed Hassanein: Writer, Diplomat and Desert Explorer,” Michael Haag, August 8, 2011, https://michaelhaag.blogspot.com/2011/08/ahmed-hassanein-diplomat-and-desert.html (accessed October 9, 2017).
11. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 112.
12. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 67–71, 147. Instructions for use of the sand compass appear at Ceri Humphries, “Our Rather Useless Hobby,” Churchill College Cambridge, September 5, 2016, https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/news/2016/sep/5/our-rather-useless-hobby (accessed September 4, 2018).
13. Photo of Bagnold on 1929 expedition: Sand, Wind, plates after 118. For a typical photo of Bagnold, see Humphries, “Useless Hobby.”
14. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 135.
15. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 128–129.
16. Bagnold, Sand, Wind, 102–104.
17. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 166–168.
18. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 177–178, 203; Kelly, Lost Oasis, 24–26.
19. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 268–284.
20. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 105–111, 179–180; László Almasy, The Unknown Sahara, trans. Andras Zboray (www.fjexpeditions.com, 2012) (originally published 1935), 22.
21. FO 371/15433 J1677/148/66, Enclosure of April 26, 1931; Kelly, Lost Oasis, 26–32; Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 197–205.
22. Bernhard, “Hitler’s Africa,” 68; Robert Mallett, Mussolini and the Origins of the Second World War, 1933–1940 (Houndsmills, UK: Palgrave, 2003), 17; R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), 205–207.
23. Kelly, Lost Oasis, 52; Almasy, Unknown Sahara, 8–37; L. E. de Almasy, “By Motor Car from Wadi Halfa to Cairo,” Sudan Notes and Records 13, no. 2 (1930): 269–278; John Bierman, The Secret Life of Laszlo Almasy: The Real English Patient (London: Penguin, 2005), 47–57.
24. Kelly, Lost Oasis, 48.
25. See photo plates in Bierman, Secret Life, and Kelly, Lost Oasis.
26. Kelly, Lost Oasis, 39.
27. Bierman, Secret Life, 20–21.
28. Bierman, Secret Life, 22–25; Kelly, Lost Oasis, 42–43.
29. Kelly, Lost Oasis, 44–45.
30. “Gyula Gömbös,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/biography/Gyula-Gombos (accessed September 8, 2018).
31. Almasy, Unknown Sahara, 2, 7. Almasy wrote that these words were a Beduin saying.
32. See Kelly, Lost Oasis, 51.
33. Kelly, Lost Oasis, 49. The byline “Count L. E. de Almasy” appears on his 1930 article “By Motor Car from Wadi Halfa to Cairo.”
34. Almasy, Unknown Sahara, 1–4; Kelly, Lost Oasis, 46–52.
35. Almasy, Unknown Sahara, 63–69; Kelly, Lost Oasis, 53–62.
36. Kelly, Lost Oasis, 89–92.
37. Bagnold, Sand, Wind, 87 and photo plates after 118; Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 233. Bagnold does not give Lorenzini’s first name, but it appears in other sources. See John Sadler, Operation Agreement: Jewish Commandos and the Raid on Tobruk (Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2016), chap. 12, iBook.
38. Kuno Gross, Michael Rolke, and András Zboray, Operation Salam: Laszlo Almasy’s Most Daring Mission in the Desert War (Munich: Belleville, 2013), 165–168; Almasy, Unknown Sahara, 109; Kelly, Lost Oasis, 104.
39. Kelly,
Lost Oasis, 63; Almasy, Unknown Sahara, 70.
40. Kelly, Lost Oasis, 87, 116.
41. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 207; Kelly, Lost Oasis, 89.
42. Almasy, Unknown Sahara, 63–78.
43. Bierman, Secret Life, 133.
44. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, 268–284.
45. Bagnold, Sand, Wind, 100–117.
46. Ralph Bagnold, Libyan Sands (London: Eland Publishing, 2012), Epilogue 1987, Kindle.
47. Bagnold, Sand, Wind, 106, 119.
48. Bierman (Secret Life, 131) writes that the last documentary evidence of Almasy’s presence in Egypt is a flight he logged from the Almaza airfield outside Cairo on July 22, 1939. His actual departure from the country more likely took place after the war began.
49. CUOH, Laszlo Pathy, 1976, 23–25.
ACT I. CHAPTER 3. NEXT KING OF THE NILE
1. Sources for this brief history of Egypt leading up to World War II are too numerous to list. Of particular value were M. W. Daly, ed., The Cambridge History of Egypt, vol. 2: Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the End of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Max Rodenbeck, Cairo: The City Victorious (New York: Vintage, 2000); Lababidi, Cairo’s Street Stories; James Aldridge, Cairo (London, Macmillan, 1970); M. E. Yapp, ed., Politics and Diplomacy in Egypt: The Diaries of Sir Miles Lampson, 1935–1937 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Michael T. Thornhill, “Informal Empire, Independent Egypt and the Accession of King Farouk,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 38, no. 2 (2010): 279–302; Laila Morsy, “Farouk in British Policy,” Middle Eastern Studies 20, no. 4 (1984): 193–211; Gabriel Warburg, “The Sudan, Egypt and Britain, 1899–1916,” Middle Eastern Studies 6, no. 2 (1970): 163–178; Eric Andrew Schewe, “State of Siege: The Development of the Security State in Egypt During the Second World War” (PhD diss, University of Michigan, 2014), https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/107172/eschewe_1.pdf (accessed October 8, 2018); Stefanie Katharine Wichhart, “Intervention: Britain, Egypt and Iraq During World War II” (PhD diss, University of Texas, Austin, 2007), www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2007/wichharts70798/wichharts70798.pdf (accessed June 18, 2014).
2. Paul Crompton, “King Farouk’s Fabulous Wealth,” Al Arabiya News, January 30, 2014, https://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2014/01/30/King-Farouk-s-fabulous-wealth-1977.html (accessed October 8, 2018). The weapons collected by Fouad and Farouk are on display at the Abdeen Palace Museum in Cairo.
3. Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 141ff.; Aldridge, Cairo, 224–226; Rodenbeck, Cairo: The City, 143–144.
4. IWM, Document 4829, R. J. Maunsell, unpublished memoir, 2–3.
5. Bagnold, Libyan Sands, chap. 2–4.
6. On the lives of the royals, see Nevine Abbas Halim, Diaries of an Egyptian Princess (Cairo: Zaitouna, 2009); CUOH, Laszlo Pathy, 1976, 22.
7. Halim, Diaries, 54, 86.
8. Yapp, Politics, 4–6; Michael Thornhill, Review of Politics and Diplomacy in Egypt by M. E. Yapp, Contemporary British History 12, no. 3 (1988): 143–145.
9. “The Dowager Lady Killearn—Obituary,” Telegraph, October 12, 2015, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/11926858/The-Dowager-Lady-Killearn-obituary.html (accessed April 25, 2018); Yapp, Politics, 35, 44.
10. MLD. See, for instance, entries for January 27, 1942, February 21, 1942, June 4, 1942, July 3, 1942.
11. On Farouk’s accession, see Morsy, “Farouk in British Policy”; Thornhill, “Informal Empire.”
12. Barrie St. Clair McBride, Farouk of Egypt: A Biography (London: Robert Hale, 1967), 76, 83. On Queen Nazli, cf. CUOH, Laszlo Pathy, 1976, 22; Halim, Diaries, 110.
13. Yapp, Politics, especially 25ff.; Morsy, “Farouk in British Policy”; Laila Morsy, “The Military Clauses of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Friendship and Alliance, 1936,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 16, no. 1 (1984): 67–97.
14. Treaty text: Yapp, Politics, 984–993.
15. Mallett, Mussolini, 83.
16. Bosworth, Mussolini, 250.
17. Mallett, Mussolini, 83–101; Kelly, Lost Oasis, 92.
18. Israel Gershoni and James Jankowski, Confronting Fascism in Egypt: Dictatorship Versus Democracy in the 1930s (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), chap. 1, iBook.
19. Thornhill, “Informal Empire,” 295.
20. IWM, Document 4829, Maunsell memoir, 4–5.
21. Morsy, “Military Clauses,” 76–77.
22. Khaled Mohi El Din, Memories of a Revolution: Egypt 1952 (Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1995), 12.
23. Anwar al-Sadat, In Search of Identity: An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 2–16.
24. Mohi El Din, Memories, 12–13; “Sunday Times Reporter Interview with President Gamal Abdel Nasser,” Nasser, https://nasser.bibalex.org/Common/pictures01-%20sira3_en.htm (accessed October 4, 2018). The original interview took place in 1962.
25. IWM, Document 4829, Maunsell memoir, 22.
26. “Farouk First King of Modern Egypt,” New York Times, July 30, 1937, 21.
27. Gershoni and Jankowski, Confronting Fascism, chap. 1.
28. Gershoni and Jankowski, Confronting Fascism, chap 1.
29. On Verucci, see Morsy, “Farouk in British Policy,” 197.
30. Jean Lugol, Egypt and World War II: The Anti-Axis Campaigns in the Middle East, trans. A. G. Mitchell (Cairo: Société Orientale de Publicité, 1945), 15–17; Wichhart, “Intervention,” 82–83.
31. “Aziz Ali al-Masri,” al-hakawati, http://al-hakawati.net/en_personalities/PersonalityDetails/7406/Aziz-Ali-alMasri (accessed October 8, 2018); Joseph A. Kéchichian, “The Military Officer Who Believed in a Muslim Empire,” Gulf News, June 17, 2011, https://gulfnews.com/life-style/general/the-military-officer-who-believed-in-a-muslim-empire-1.821498 (accessed October 2, 2018).
32. Wichhart, “Intervention,” 81ff.
33. Lampson’s cables from the early days of September 1939 on his meetings with Ali Maher are in FO 371/23368 and FO 407/223. See also Wichhart, “Intervention,” 81–87. Lugol (Egypt, 19) gives a highly sanitized version of events.
34. CD, August 30–31, 1939.
35. Mallett, Mussolini, 83ff.; CD, November 6, 1937, November 20, 1937.
36. CD, September 9, 1937.
37. Bosworth, Mussolini, 253–254.
38. CD, March 16–17, 1939, August 11, 1939, August 13, 1939, August 27, 1939. On Hitler’s disappointment with Munich and hurry to go to war before he got any older, see Weinberg, World at Arms, chap. 1.
39. CD, August 20, 1939.
40. CD, September 1, 1939.
41. US NARA, RG 226, Entry 171A, Box 59, “Report on the Penetration Activities of the ‘P’ Squad of the Italian Military Intelligence Service, Counter Espionage Section,” 4. On the Maffey Report, cf. Jason Davidson, “Italy, British Resolve and the 1935–1936 Italo-Ethiopian War,” Cahiers de la Méditerranée 88 (2014), https://journals.openedition.org/cdlm/7428 (accessed October 10, 2018).
42. “Report on the Penetration Activities,” 4; US NARA, RG 226, Entry 108B, Box 306, “Penetration of Diplomatic Premises by SIM CS Prior to the Armistice,” August 14, 1944; Maria Gabriella Pasqualini, “Manfredi Talamo e l’intelligence italiana tra le due guerre,” Notiziario Storico dell’ Arma dei Carabinieri 2, no. 6 (2017): 44–52; Maria Gabriella Pasqualini, Carte segrete dell’ intelligence italiana il S.I.M. in archivi stranieri (Rome: Ministero della Difesa, 2006), 212–237. I am grateful to Maria Gabriella Pasqualini for her generosity in sharing the archival materials cited above.
43. The name is consistently misspelled in British records as Constantini.
44. Brian R. Sullivan, “Roman Holiday for Spies: Episodes in Soviet, German and Italian Espionage Operations Against Britain and Each Other, 1924–1940,” author’s ms., 3–6. I am grateful to Brian Sullivan for sharing his manuscript and his insights with me.
45. “Penetratio
n of Diplomatic Premises,” 2.
46. “Report on the Penetration Activities,” 6ff.
47. “Report on the Penetration Activities,” 5–6; “Penetration of Diplomatic Premises,” 3.
48. Giuseppe Conti, Mussolini’s Spies: A History of SIM Italian Military Intelligence, 1940–1943, trans. Brian Sullivan, 365. Unpublished page proofs of the English translation courtesy of Brian Sullivan.
49. HW 40/75, “Penetration of Diplomatic Premises by SIM/CS,” August 14, 1944; “Report on the Penetration Activities,” 8; “Penetration of Diplomatic Premises,” 1, 4.
50. “Report on the Penetration Activities,” 8.
51. FO 850/2 Y775, “Security of Documents in H. M. Embassy, Rome,” February 20, 1937. While various writers have identified the necklace as belonging to Drummond’s wife, FO 850/2, Smith to Osborne, draft of March 15, 1937, says it belonged to Drummond’s daughter.
52. HW 40/75, C/7541, September 6, 1944.
53. FO 850/2 Y832, “Security Measures at H. M. Embassy, Berlin,” July 22, 1937.
54. Peter Neville, “The Foreign Office and Britain’s Ambassadors to Berlin, 1933–39,” Contemporary British History 18, no. 3 (2004): 119–120.
55. “Report on the Penetration Activities,” 4–8; “Penetration of Diplomatic Premises,” 2–5.
56. Sullivan, “Roman Holiday,” 39.
57. “Report on the Penetration Activities,” 6.
58. Lugol, Egypt, 22–23.
59. Wichhart, “Intervention,” 87–88.
60. Gershoni and Jankowski, Confronting Fascism, chap. 1.
61. Bagnold, Sand, Wind, 119–120; I. S. O. Playfair et al., The Mediterranean and Middle East, vol. 1: The Early Successes Against Italy (to May 1941) (London: HM Stationery Office, 1954), 31–33, 41, 457–459, www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-Med-I/index.html (accessed October 16, 2018); London Gazette, no. 34650, August 1, 1939, 5311, www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/34650/page/5311 (accessed October 16, 2018).
War of Shadows Page 45
