31. Philip Tennant, ‘Parish and People: South Warwickshire in the Civil War’, reprinted in Richardson (ed.), Local Aspects, pp. 157–86.
32. TNA, SP24/47 petition of John Fettiplace. For these disputes and their implications see Ann Hughes, ‘Parliamentary Tyranny? Indemnity Proceedings and the Impact of the Civil War: A Case Study from Warwickshire’, Midland History, 11 (1986), 49–78.
33. Ian Roy, ‘The Royalist Army in the First Civil War’, unpublished D.Phil. thesis, Oxford (1963), pp. 138–9, 247–62; Carlton, Going to the Wars, pp. 188–9. For resentment of Goring see David Underdown, Somerset in the Civil War and Interregnum (Newton Abbot, 1973), chs. 4–5.
34. Edwards, Dealing in Death, ch. 4; for the supply of the New Model See also Ian Gentles, The New Model Army in England, Ireland and Scotland, 1645–53 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 40–47. For the royalists see Roy, ‘Royalist Army’; Ian Roy (ed.), The Royalist Ordnance Papers, 1642–1646, 2 vols., Oxfordshire Record Society, 43, 49 (Oxford, 1964, 1975).
35. Edwards, Dealing in Death, pp. 69, 71, 75.
36. Donald Woodward, ‘Wage Rates and Living Standards in pre-Industrial England’, PP, 91 (1981), 28–46; Woodward, Men at Work: Labourers and Building Craftsmen in the Towns of Northern England, 1450–1750 (Cambridge, 1995).
37. Edwards, Dealing in Death, ch. 5.
38. Ibid., p. 136. For the following paragraph See also Pennington, ‘War and the People’, pp. 125–7.
39. Edwards, Dealing in Death, ch. 7.
40. Ibid., ch. 9; for Bateman and carriers’ pay see ibid., pp. 228–9. In 1642 half of the Yorkshire gentry (relatively poor by national standards) had an income below £250 p.a.; in East Anglia in the 1630s the owner of 1,000 sheep (a pretty substantial operation) might make an annual profit of £140: Christopher Clay (ed.), Chapters from the Agrarian History of England and Wales (general editor Joan Thirsk), vol. 2; Rural Society: Land owners, Peasants and Labourers 1500–1750 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 56, 60. Cromwell was worth around £100 p.a. at the beginning of the 1630s, £300 by the end. The latter represented a respectable income for a Justice of the Peace: John Morrill, ‘The Making of Oliver Cromwell’, in John Morrill (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Harlow, 1990), pp. 19–48, at pp. 21–2.
41. John Morrill, ‘Introduction’, in Morrill (ed.), The Impact of the English Civil War (London, 1991), pp. 8–19, at p. 9.
42. Gentles, New Model Army, p. 40 and table 2.1; for the size of the royalist army at this point see above, p. 391.
43. Gentles, New Model Army, pp. 47–8.
44. For the reluctance of the royalists to use conscription, and the disappointing results when they did, see Roy, ‘Royalist Army’, pp. 185–9. There was little need for either side to resort to conscription in the Midland counties other than Worcester: Osborne, ‘Clubmen in the Midlands’, in Gaunt (ed.), English Civil War, p. 245. Gentles emphasizes conscription in maintaining infantry numbers, but it is clear from his account that many served voluntarily: New Model Army, pp. 34–8. In any case, volunteer and conscript were both paid, with the potential effects being outlined here.
45. Gentles, New Model Army, p. 29; Paul Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England (London, 1988), p. 171. We would need, though, a very detailed study to test the hypothesis: the geographical distribution of soldiers and of shortage and so on. There is, clearly, room for a systematic study of the effects of the war on the labour market, as on other aspects of the domestic economy. Coates, London, provides a model. For some suggestive comments see Hughes, Warwickshire, pp. 270–71; for the dearth see Steve Hindle, ‘Dearth and the English Revolution: The Harvest Crisis of 1647–50 Revisited’, EcHR (forthcoming).
46. Gentles, New Model Army, table 2.1; population estimate derived from Wrigley and Schofield, Population History: 17 per cent of population between 15 and 24, 42 per cent between 25 and 59 (table A3.1, p. 528); total population 1646: 5,176,571 (table 7.8, p. 208). Assuming even sex ratios, the male population was 2,588,285, of whom 440,008 were 15–24 and 1,087,079 were 25–59.
47. Gentles, New Model Army, table 2.1. For the royalist figure see above, p. 391.
48. Gentles, New Model Army, table 2.1; Wrigley and Schofield, Population History, table A3.1, p. 528.
49. Gough, History of Myddle, p. 116.
50. John Walter and Roger Schofield, ‘Famine, Disease and Crisis Mortality in Early Modern Society’, in John Walter and Roger Schofield (eds.), Famine, Disease and the Social Order in Early Modern Society (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 1–73; John Walter, ‘The Social Economy of Dearth in Early Modern England’, reprinted in John Walter, Crowds and Popular Politics in Early Modern England (Manchester, 2006), pp. 124–180.
51. Bennett, Civil Wars Experienced, pp. 113, 117.
52. TNA, SP24/38 petition of Thomas Catrowe (and associated papers); SP24/57 petition of Joane Johnson.
53. Donagan, ‘Casualties’, pp. 124–5; Arni, Justice to the Maimed Soldier, esp. pp. 11-12, 56–7, 148–51, 153–4.
54. Braddick, Nerves of State, esp. pp. 34–9; James Scott Wheeler, The Making of a World Power: War and the Military Revolution in Seventeenth-Century England (Stroud, 1999).
55. Philip Styles, ‘The City of Worcester during the Civil Wars, 1640–60’, reprinted in Richardson (ed.), Local Aspects, pp. 187–238, at pp. 197–202; See also Roy, ‘Oxford’, pp. 147–9.
56. In Cheshire, in fact, the net flow of money was into the county: Morrill, Cheshire, pp. 94–100; Gentles, New Model Army, pp. 40–47; Edwards, Dealing in Death, p. 137. The related question of corruption and peculation in the armies has received little attention: for some examples see TNA SP24/57 petition of George Key (forged debentures), SP24/76 petition of John Smith (extortion).
57. TNA SP24/47 petition of farmers of Surrey; Hughes, Warwickshire, pp. 270–71, 281–2; Braddick, Parliamentary Taxation, pp. 151–4; Pennington, ‘War and the People’, pp. 130–31; Colin Phillips, ‘Landlord-Tenant Relationships 1642–1660’, reprinted in R. C. Richardson (ed.), Town and Countryside in the English Revolution (Manchester, 1992), pp. 224–50, at pp. 238–9.
58. Culpeper Letters, pp. 118–19.
59. Barry Coward, Oliver Cromwell (Harlow, 1991), pp. 11, 12, 48.
60. Phillips, ‘Landlord-Tenant Relationships’, pp. 239–47; P. G. Holiday, ‘Land Sales and Repurchases in Yorkshire after the Civil Wars, 1650–1670’, reprinted in Richardson, Local Aspects, pp. 287–308; H.J. Habakkuk, ‘Landowners and the Civil War’, EcHR, 2nd ser., 18 (1965), 130–51; Joan Thirsk, ‘The Sales of Royalist Land during the Interregnum’, EcHR, 2nd ser., 5 (1952), 188–207; Coate, Cornwall, pp. 225–37. For other local examples see Underdown, Somerset, pp. 126–7; Morrill, Cheshire, pp. 111–17; Fletcher, Sussex, pp. 328–33. Set in a wider context by Christopher O’Riordan, ‘Popular Exploitation of Enemy Estates in the English Revolution’, History, 78 (1993), 183–200.
61. Ian Gentles, ‘The Sales of Crown Lands during the English Revolution’, EcHR, 2nd ser., 26 (1973), 614–35.
62. Anthony Fletcher, Reform in the Provinces: The Government of Stuart England (New Haven, Conn., 1986), pp. 12–14, 32.
63. Morrill, Cheshire, pp. 223–41; Hughes, Warwickshire, pp. 277–90. See Morrill, Revolt in the Provinces, 2nd edn, pp. 160–62.
64. Underdown, Somerset, ch. 7: these men were attacked as low-born, but it was truer to say that they were of lesser eminence than of no eminence. For other examples see Fletcher, Sussex, pp. 325–8; Coate, Cornwall, p. 221; Hughes, Warwickshire, ch. 9.
65. Underdown, Somerset, pp. 123–56; see, for example, Fletcher, Sussex, ch. 16, and, for the disruption of assizes, pp. 340-41; Bennett, ‘War and Disorder’, pp. 256–7 (Yorkshire); Hughes, Warwickshire, p. 170. This may have been less true of the towns; see, for example, John T. Evans, Seventeenth-Century Norwich: Politics, Religion and Government, 1620–1690 (Oxford, 1979), pp. 131–8 (and, after 1649, 182–97). In Cheshire much effective action depended on the personal authority of William Brereton: Morrill, Cheshire, ch
. 3, as with John Pyne in Somerset: Underdown, Somerset, ch. 7. Both men were of gentry backgrounds, however.
66. For Dowsing see pp. 313–14; for excisemen see Braddick, Parliamentary Taxation, ch. 4.
67. Gough, History, pp. 71–2, 133–4.
68. Bod. L, Ashmolean MS 184, fos 76v, 128r, 142r.
69. TNA SP24/38 petition of Matthew Ingelesbye; SP24/76 petition of Thomas Sheppard; SP24/57 petition of William Jennifer. For other examples see SP24/76 petition of Abraham Slack; SP24/47 petition of James Flood (who left service to go to the siege of Colchester). Apprenticeship disputes do not figure in the Gloucestershire indemnity cases, but they do appear in Warwickshire: Warmington, Gloucestershire, p. 89; Hughes, ‘Parliamentary Tyranny?’, p. 58. This may be another context for the decline in numbers entering service in the 1640s: Roy, ‘England Turned Germany?’, pp. 265–6.
70. For Marsworth see above pp. 100–101. For dependency see Paul Griffiths, Youth and Authority: Formative Experiences in England 1560–1640 (Oxford, 1996), ch. 3, esp. pp. 147–69. See also Ilana Krausman Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (London, 1994); S. R. Smith, ‘The London Apprentices as 17th Century Adolescents’, reprinted in Paul Slack (ed.), Rebellion, Popular Protest and the Social Order in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 219–31.
71. Gough, History, p. 71; see above, pp. 389, 406.
72. Gough, History, pp. 133–5.
73. For a good overview see Sara Mendelson and Patricia Crawford, Women in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1998), pp. 394–418. For petitioners see above, pp. 184–5, and Patricia Higgins, ‘The Reactions of Women, with Special Reference to Women Petitioners’, in Brian Manning (ed.), Politics, Religion and the English Civil War (London, 1973), pp. 179–222. For Alkin see Marcus Nevitt, Women and the Pamphlet Culture of Revolutionary England, 1640–1660 (Aldershot, 2006), ch. 3. For the Kings Cabinet opened see above, pp. 379–83. For Hutchinson see Derek Hirst, ‘Remembering a Hero: Lucy Hutchinson’s Memoirs of Her Husband’, EHR, 119 (2004), 682–92.
74. Gardiner, 1, p. 296.
75. Sharon Achinstein, ‘Introduction: Gender, Literature and the English Revolution’, Women’s Studies, 24:1–2 (1994), 1–13; Sharon Achinstein, ‘Women on Top in the Pamphlet Literature of the English Revolution’, Women’s Studies, 24:1–2 (1994), 131–63; Rachel Trubowitz, ‘Female Preachers and Male Wives: Gender and Authority in Civil War England’, reprinted in James Holstun (ed.), Pamphlet Wars: Prose in the English Revolution (London, 1992), pp. 112–33; Susan Wiseman, ‘“Adam, the Father of all Flesh”: Porno-Political Rhetoric and Political Theory in and after the English Civil War’, reprinted in ibid., pp. 134–57; Dagmar Freist, ‘The King’s Crown is the Whore of Babylon: Politics, Gender and Communication in Mid-Seventeenth-Century England’, Gender and History, 7 (1995), 457–81; Dagmar Freist, Governed by Opinion: Politics, Religion and the Dynamics of Communication in Stuart London, 1637–1645 (London, 1997). For newsbook representations see Joad Raymond (ed.), Making the News: An Anthology of the Newsbooks of Revolutionary England, 1641–1660 (Moreton-in-Marsh, 1993), ch. 3.
76. Anon., A discoverie of Six women preachers (London, 1641), title page.
77. See, among many others, Anon., A description of the Sect called the Familie of Love (London, 1641); Anon., The Adamites Sermon (London, 1641); Clive Holmes, Seventeenth-Century Lincolnshire (Lincoln, 1980), p. 199. For other examples of this connection see Cressy, England on Edge, pp. 241–5.
78. Anon., Calvers royall vision (London, 1648), Thomason date 28 October 1648; Anon., Thirteen strange prophecies (London, 1648), Thomason date 10 August 1648; Fourteene strange prophecies (London, 1648), Thomason date 10 August 1648; Fourteene strange prophecies (London, 1649), Thomason date 15 January 1649. For the maid of Worsop see Anon., The Wonderfull works of God (London, 1641), Fortescue date 21 November 1641.
79. Barbara Ritter Dailey, ‘The Visitation of Sarah Wight: Holy Carnival and the Revolution of the Saints in Civil War London’, Church History, 55 (1986), 438–55.
80. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth-and Seventeenth-Century England (Harmondsworth, 1991 edn), esp. pp. 151–66.
81. Keith Thomas, ‘Women and the Civil War Sects’, PP, 13 (1958), 42–62; Phyllis Mack, Visionary Women: Ecstatic Prophecy in Seventeenth-Century England (Berkeley, Calif., 1992); Elizabeth Clarke, ‘The Legacy of Mothers and Others: Women’s Theological Writing, 1640–60’, in Christopher Durston and Judith Maltby (eds.), Religion in Revolutionary England (Manchester, 2006), pp. 69–90.
82. See the special edition of Women’s Studies edited and introduced by Sharon Achinstein, Women’s Studies, 24:1-2 (1994); Trubowitz, ‘Female Preachers’; Wiseman, ‘“Adam, the Father of all Flesh”’. For petitioning see Higgins, ‘Reactions of Women’, in Manning (ed.), Politics, pp. 179–222, esp. pp. 209–12; Ann Hughes, ‘Gender and Politics in Leveller Literature’, in Susan D. Amussen and Mark A. Kishlansky (eds.), Political Culture and Cultural Politics in Early Modern Europe: Essays Presented to David Underdown (Manchester, 1995), pp. 162–88; Ann Marie McEntee, ‘“The [un]civill-sisterhood of Oranges and Lemons”: Female Petitioners and Demonstrators, 1642–53’, reprinted in Holstun (ed.), Pamphlet Wars, pp. 92–111; Nevitt, Women, quotation at p. 5. The achievements of many of the women mentioned here are celebrated in Stevie Davies, Unbridled Spirits: Women of the English Revolution: 1640–1660 (London, 1998).
83. Ian Gentles, ‘The New Model Officer Corps in 1647: A Collective Portrait’, Social History, 22 (1997), 127–44.
15. Remaking the Local Community
1. Cromwell had argued that ‘if the army be not put into another method, and the war more vigorously prosecuted, the people can bear the war no longer, and will enforce you to a dishonourable peace’: quoted in Ian Gentles, The New Model Army in England, Ireland and Scotland 1645–1653 (Oxford, 1992), p. 6. See above, pp. 350–51.
2. Ronald Hutton, The Royalist War Effort 1642-1646, 2nd edn (London, 1999), p. 160.
3. Ibid., pp. 163–5; Gentles, New Model Army, pp. 61–6.
4. John Morrill, Revolt in the Provinces: The People of England and the Tragedies of War, 2nd edition (Harlow, 1999), p. 133; for the distinction between earlier and later movements see David Underdown, ‘The Chalk and the Cheese: Contrasts among the English Clubmen’, PP, 85 (1979), 25–48, at p. 28.
5. Hutton, Royalist War Effort, esp. pp. 160, 163–4; David Underdown, Somerset in the Civil War and Interregnum (Newton Abbot, 1973), esp. pp. 87–92, 98–100.
6. Hutton, Royalist War Effort, p. 161; Simon Osborne, ‘The War, the People and the Absence of the Clubmen in the Midlands, 1642–1646’, reprinted in Peter Gaunt (ed.), The English Civil War (Oxford, 2000), pp. 226–48, esp. pp. 227–39. Nowhere was unaffected by the war of course, and the clubman areas of Worcester certainly felt the burdens of war. On this point See also C. D. Gilbert, ‘The Worcestershire Clubmen of 1645’, Transactions of the Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd ser., 15 (1996), 211–18, at p. 212.
7. Hutton, Royalist War Effort, pp. 160–61.
8. Underdown, Somerset, pp. 98–9.
9. Anthony Fletcher, A County Community in Peace and War: Sussex 1600–1660 (London, 1975), p. 272.
10. Morrill, Revolt in the Provinces, 2nd edn, pp. 133–4.
11. Underdown, Somerset, esp. pp. 105–10, 115–16; Underdown, ‘Chalk and the Cheese’, esp. pp. 32–40; Hutton, Royalist War Effort, pp. 162–3. For other examples see Mark Stoyle, Loyalty and Locality: Popular Allegiance in Devon during the English Civil War (Exeter, 1994), ch. 6; Andrew Coleby, Central Government and the Localities: Hampshire 1649–1689 (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 7–9.
12. Underdown, Somerset, pp. 106–8; C. D. Gilbert, ‘Clubmen in South West Shropshire, 1644-5’, Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Historical Society, 68 (1993), 93–8, at pp. 95–6; Hutton, Royalist War Effort, pp. 163–4.
13. Underdown, Somerset, pp. 98–9; Underdown, ‘Chalk
and the Cheese’, p. 29.
14. For this suggestion see Hutton, Royalist War Effort, p. 165.
15. Underdown, Somerset, p. 107; Hutton, Royalist War Effort, pp. 164–5, 171.
16. These manifestos reprinted in John Morrill, Revolt of the Provinces: Conservatives and Radicals in the English Civil War, 1630–1650, 1st edn (Harlow, 1980), pp. 196–7. Extracts are incorporated into the text of the second edition, but I have here referred readers to the fuller texts in the first edition.
17. Osborne, ‘Clubmen in the Midlands’.
18. They are substantially reprinted in Morrill, Revolt of the Provinces, 1st edn, pp. 197–200.
19. Gilbert, ‘Worcestershire Clubmen’, p. 211.
20. Hutton, Royalist War Effort, pp. 162–3. For the royalist desire to use Grand Juries and quarter sessions, where possible, see Morrill, Revolt in the Provinces, 2nd edn, p. 78.
21. See Morrill, Revolt of the Provinces, 1st edn, pp. 199, 200.
22. Ibid., p. 197.
23. Gilbert, ‘Clubmen in South West Shropshire’, p. 94; See also Morrill, Revolt in the Provinces, 2nd edn, pp. 141, 148.
24. David Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion: Popular Politics and Culture in England, 1603–1660 (Oxford, 1985), pp. 158–9; Morrill, Revolt in the Provinces, 2nd edn, p. 143; Morrill, Revolt of the Provinces, 1st edn, pp. 197, 200; Gilbert, ‘Worcestershire Clubmen’, p. 212; Hutton, Royalist War Effort, pp. 162–3. Gilbert places less emphasis on anti-Catholicism, suggesting that this was more anti-unruly soldier than anti-Catholic in nature: ‘Worcestershire Clubmen’, p. 213.
25. Reprinted in Morrill, Revolt of the Provinces, 1st edn, p. 198; See also Revolt in the Provinces, 2nd edn, p. 141.
26. The demands of the Dorset and Wiltshire clubmen were published by order: The Desires and Resolutions of the club-men of the counties of Dorset and Wilts (London, 1645), Thomason date 12 July 1645. The Shropshire and Worcestershire manifestos were published in parliamentary newsbooks: Hutton, Royalist War Effort, p. 160; and the Wiltshire clubmen’s petition of July 1645 survives in LJ: reprinted in Morrill, Revolt of the Provinces, 1st edn, pp. 196–7. Humphrey Willis, the Somerset leader, took his campaign against the county committee the following year into print: Underdown, Somerset, pp. 133–5. The published version of a sermon preached at the siege of Basing House by William Beech included ‘a word of advice, full of love and affection’ to the clubmen of Hampshire: William Beech, More sulphure for Basing (London, 1645). For a remarkably forthright denunciation see A True relation of The Rising of the club-men in Sussex (London, 23 September 1645).
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