Albumen (Gluten)
7.5
,,
Fat
5
,,
Hydrated Carbon Compounds,
Starch, Sugar, etc }
49.5
,,
Cellulose, Salts, etc
1.5
,,
Ash
1.0
,,
And its caloric value as 2384, that is the measure of its potential energy as a food.
Part of the water is contained in the flour itself, in the proportion of about 15 per cent., while the rest is taken up by the bread in the process of making. Thus 145 lb. of bread contains usually about 45 lb. of added water. If bread be kept it becomes stale and consequently drier. This result is accounted for by a change in the internal molecules and from loss of moisture (water). If, however, a stale loaf is placed in a closely covered tin and exposed for half-an-hour to a heat not exceeding that of boiling water, i.e. 212 degrees, the loaf will regain the appearance and properties of new bread.
Wholemeal bread is composed of wholemeal flour, water, yeast, and salt. In some cases a small quantity of potatoes is added to the yeast, especially so when leaven is used in place of yeast.
All bread, when well-made, should be sweet, properly baked, and of proper texture; the flour or meal, from which bread is made, must be dry (not damp), clean and free from grit or other injurious admixtures.
RULES & INSTRUCTIONS FOR BREADMAKING.
FLOUR.
The wholemeal flour provided for Prison Bread contains a certain proportion of sharps and pollard. This fact must be borne in mind by the Bakers, and they must use every precaution to have the bread thoroughly baked, so that all the essential food-properties are obtained. Great care and special precautions must be taken to keep the flour stored in a dry and well ventilated place, and on no account must it be placed in a damp or close room. It should be at least a week in store before being used. The sacks should be on wooden racks. If they are stood on a concrete floor it may give the flour a musty flavour.
Sweetness and strength of bread are the most essential points to consider, and these have necessarily much to do with the quality of the flour used, and the place where it is stored till required for use.
Meal and flour of the standard quality should produce the following quantities of bread, viz.:—
A sack of 280 lbs. flour, known as “best seconds” or “best household,” produces 362l bs. of bread.
A sack of 280 lbs. wholemeal flour (consisting of all the products of the wheaten grain, with the exception of the coarser bran) should yield at least 370 lbs. of bread.
YEAST.
The flavour of bread and its sweetness depend largely upon the yeast used in its preparation. There are several types or classes of yeast, and whatever kind is used, the Baker should make himself well acquainted with its nature and strength before using it for the manufacture of bread. Patent and compressed yeasts, distiller’s and brewer’s yeasts, are those mostly in use at the present time. Of these the former may be regarded as the most popular. The difference between compressed and brewer’s yeast, is that the former is a spirit or distiller’s yeast compressed, and of much lighter colour than brewer’s yeast, whilst brewer’s yeast is a liquid of paste-like consistency; it is obtained from the brewhouse, it is coloured and flavoured as the beer from which it is obtained at the time of brewing. Half a pound of dried or compressed yeast is equal to l½ pints of brewer’s thick yeast.
The result obtained by the use of the various types of yeast is practically the same, provided that the yeast selected be properly treated and manipulated, and the correct proportion or percentage of yeast be used.
Yeast is known as a fungus, and produces a ferment, because its cells are, as it were, living beings; when immersed in fresh water of a suitable temperature, the cells of yeast give out carbonic acid, so that when the yeast is mixed with the dough it acts as a ferment.
COMPRESSED YEAST. MAGNIFIED 440 DIAMETER.
Yeast is composed of a large number of round and oval cells resembling little bladders. The preceding diagram shows a section of compressed or patent yeast examined by means of a microscope, the little cells shown are filled with an albuminous substance known as “protoplasm.”
The Chemical Composition of Yeast is made up as follows:—
Carbon
48.7
per cent.
Oxygen
30.7
,,
Nitrogen
11.8
,,
Hydrogen
6.4
,,
Mineral matter (ash)
2.4
,,
100.0
It is most essential that the yeast used should be fresh, and should be supplied daily, or at least every other day.
In setting the sponge, i.e. in mixing the yeast, it is well to remember that all extremes of temperature weaken and change the action of yeast. A cold or slow fermentation is most detrimental, for it makes the bread heavy and produces bad flavours. On the other hand, hot fermentations are equally dangerous, because the yeast becomes over stimulated, in other words acts too quickly, and the sponge becomes over ripe before the baker is ready for it. The best results are obtained by using the liquid, i. e, water, to mix the yeast with, at a temperature of between 78 to 85 deg. Fah. This heat must, of course, be taken as approximate, because in each case the kind and quality of yeast employed, the temperature of the bakehouse, the kind of flour used, as well as the condition of utensils and troughs and the speed of workmen, must be taken into consideration. These things must be left to the Baker, who must decide and calculate to the best of his judgment the various operations in the process of breadmaking.
SPONGES.
Sponges are made by mixing water, yeast, and flour together so as to produce a thick spongy batter, the prime object being to feed and develop the yeast, so as to allow it sufficient scope for fermentation. After allowing the sponge to rest for a time (usually from 2 to 3 hours) it will after having risen, begin to drop or fall. It is then ready for making the dough. The usual proportions of yeast (compressed or patent) and flour or meal are 2 oz. of yeast to 1 bushel of flour.
THE DOUGH.
The next stage, after making the ferment and sponge, is the mixing of the dough. Dough may however be made without prior fermentation, using the usual quantity of yeast, which should be carefully diluted, but after the dough has been made about 2 hours, it should be cut back, dusted with flour, and well kneaded. The time required for the dough to set or rise depends upon the kind of flour or meal and yeast used. It usually requires from 6 to 8 hours.
Some bakers can make a good and sweet bread without either a ferment or a sponge, or with a ferment only, whilst others will make it with both a ferment and a sponge—the latter is no doubt the most correct method. Dough is ripe and ready for manipulation when it has well risen and is full of gas. It should then come out of the trough and be worked off with as little delay as possible.
When the dough is cold and slow in rising it may be required to be covered over, so as to help it to rise; on the other hand, if it works too freely, and is cracking all over the top, it requires to be worked up, so as to keep it more steady and prerent too speedy rising.
SALT.
Salt must in all cases be used with judgment, as this will guide the fermentation and gives flavour to the bread. For the quick process use 10 oz. to the bushel, and for the long process use 12 oz. to the bushel. The natural effect of salt upon yeast is to check its growth. This will of course to some extent delay the working of the sponge or dough. It is therefore the wiser plan to add the salt towards one of the later stages in bread-making.
MOULDING.
When the dough is ready for moulding, scale it off into the required rations, place them on the floured board, and work the pieces of dough thoroughly, taking one in each hand, press down firmly, and continue to fold and press down the dough with knuckl
es and fingers till the desired shape and elastic texture is obtained. As soon as moulded, place them close together on the baking tins, and mark them with the stamp indicating the weight of the loaves. Allow them to prove, after this they will be ready for baking; bake off in batches. Time allowed for proving is usually half an hour.
THE OVEN AND BAKING.
The oven in connection with breadmaking plays a most important part. It is therefore imperative that it should be well managed and well looked after. There are numerous types or kinds of ovens, some are fired with wood, others with coal, and others with steam or hot air. Coals are unquestionably the best fuel for heating a baker’s oven. It is rather difficult to specify the exact time needed for baking bread, as this depends to a large extent on the heat of the oven, the kind of oven used, as well as its construction. It also depends on the size and shape of the loaves, and the manner in which they are placed in the oven.
Ordinary ovens, viz., those which are heated by the fuel (fire) being placed inside and then withdrawn, should register from 550 deg. to 600 deg. Fah. This may appear a great heat, but it must be remembered that during the process of baking the heat will decrease considerably. Ovens which are heated by hot water, steam, or hot air pipes, should register a temperature of 400 deg. Fah. Small loaves (4, 6, and 8 oz. rations) take from 50 to 60 minutes to bake, whilst the time required for baking large loaves is as follows:—1 lb. loaf about 1½ hours; 2 lb, loaf about 1¾ hours.
Over-heated ovens are as detrimental to bread-making as under-heated ones. When a “batch,” i. e. shapes of dough placed on sheets or tins one against the other, is put in the oven, the crust on the top of the loaves is formed too soon by an over-heated oven, —that is before the dough has had sufficient time to rise fully (expand), whilst in the case of the oven being too cool, the crust is not formed quickly enough.
TESTING THE HEAT OF THE OVEN.
An oven thermometer or pyrometer, as it is sometimes called, is of very great use and aid, because by its help the baker will be able to ascertain the correct heat of the oven. Most of the modern ovens have a thermometer fitted to them for the purpose of regulating the oven heat. A smart and observant baker will however, soon become acquainted with an oven, and will with or without its aid be able to tell the heat most desirable and suitable for the purpose in view.
When no thermometer is used, the heat of the oven may be tested by sprinkling a little flour on the tiles of the oven. Should the flour remain white after the lapse of a few seconds, it may be taken as a sign that the oven is not hot enough for baking; if on the other hand, the flour becomes a dark brown colour in a few seconds, then the oven is, too hot; but if it assumes a fawny colour and looks slightly scorched, the temperature is suitable for baking purposes.
CHAPTER VIII.
PRACTICAL METHODS OF BREAD-MAKING.
With the exception of preparing the yeast or ferment, which is either made with compressed, patent, or brewers’ yeast, the process of bread-making adapted by most bakers is practically the same. Bread made with baking-powder, which is known as unleavened or unfermented bread, is not manufactured in Prison Bakehouses, and is therefore not dealt with in this Manual.
A certain percentage of potatoes has been introduced in the recipes for both wholemeal bread and wheaten bread.
The use of potatoes in bread making is strongly recommended for the following reasons,—
Bread will be of distinctly better flavour when potatoes of medium size and mealy, are used in its manufacture.
The action of the ferment is considerably hastened.
Cooked mealy potatoes introduced in the ferment (yeast) provide it with a prepared food ready for immediate assimilation.
Furthermore, the presence of nitrogenous substances called “Amides” and sundry salts obtained from cooked potatoes are desirable adjuncts to be introduced in the manufacture of bread of every description.
YEAST FERMENT.
(Made from Distilled Compressed Yeast, or French Yeast.)
INGREDIENTS (for one sack of flour or wholemeal). —8 lh. potatoes (mealy), 10 quarts of water, 2 lbs. flour, 10 oz. compressed yeast.
METHOD.—Wash, peel, and cook the potatoes in slightly salted water; when done (thoroughly cooled), drain them and mash them up well: a stodge bat or potato masher should be used for this purpose. Add enough water to make a paste.
- Dissolve, the yeast in about 2 quarts of tepid water (75 to 80 deg. Fah.) Add this to the flour, stir well, and add the mashed potatoes and the remainder of water. Work the ferment thoroughly in the ferment tub, and set aside to rise. It is most essential and of the first importance that the potatoes should be well mashed, and that the flour be well mixed, so that there is no possible chance of any small pieces or lumps getting into the bread.
YEAST FERMENT.
(Made from THICK or BREWERS’ YEAST.)
INGREDIENTS (for one sack of flour or wholemeal). —10 lb. potatoes, 10 quarts of water, 2 lb. flour, 2¼ lb. of thick or brewers’ yeast.
METHOD.—Prepare and cook the potatoes as directed in the previous recipe. Add the flour to the mashed potatoes and stir in the water (the temperature of the water should register from 75 to 80 deg. Fah., according to the temperature of the bakehouse and season) and the yeast. Stir well and see that there are no lumps in the mixture. Work the ferment in the ferment tub thoroughly with your hands, so as to thoroughly mix all the ingredients. Cover it with a cloth and leave it undisturbed for about 6 hours. At the end of that time it should he ready for working the dough.
It is important that the yeast used for this ferment be weighed, not measured, as it is more certain then to obtain uniform results in the bread.
HOW TO MAKE MALT YEAST.—(ALF. SMITH’S METHOD.)
INGREDIENTS.—1 lb. malt, 2 gals. of water, 1 oz. of hops, 6 oz. of flour.
METHOD.—Put the hops in the water and boil for 10 minutes, and then strain off ½ a gallon of the hop water, which should be cooled down, and mixed with the malt, and allowed to stand for two hours; the remainder of the hops and water to be kept warm to extract the strength of the hops. At the end of two hours the ½ gallon of hop water is strained from the malt, to which is added a small quantity of old yeast to set it to work.
The other 1½ gallon of hop water is now brought to boil, and strained on the malt, where it remains until cool; the malt is then strained from it and 6 oz. of flour added, and the whole mixed together, making 2 gallons.
It is covered up for 24 hours, when it is fit for use. The temperature when it is set to work is regulated by the weather.
SETTING THE SPONGE.
Ferments and sponges should always be prepared by the Baker and not be left to the men under his charge.
Once the ferment is ready for operation, the sponge must be set with as little delay as possible. A sponge is usually made by making up a portion of dough in one end of the trough, in which the prepared ferment, yeast, etc. is incorporated. A “sponge proper” is made by mixing about a quarter of the flour to be used for bread with the prepared yeast or ferment, water and salt (the latter is optional). After being well worked (kneaded), it must be allowed to rise and fall twice. It requires from 6 to 8 hours, according to the kind of yeast used for making the ferment, to obtain a perfect sponge.
This stage in the manufacture of bread is most important, for it may safely be said that at this stage of the work the quality of the bread is more or less determined. Some bakers do not take the trouble to set a sponge but make up the dough immediately after the ferment is made and ready for operation; this practice is by no means desirable as the results are far from satisfactory, and should therefore not be followed.
The sponge is generally set over night, and the time of its ripeness naturally depends upon the period of the year, the heat of the bakehouse, and the temperature at which it is put away. This must be left to the judgment of the Baker, who should know when the sponge is ready, and he must act and direct accordingly, and carefully study the circumstances and th
e law which govern the action of the yeast. In all cases the trough containing the sponge should be covered, either with a cloth, or, better still, with the trough lid.
MAKING THE DOUGH.
When the sponge is ready, that is, when it has sufficiently fermented, and has come up for the second time as before described, weigh the salt, about 3 lbs. to the sack of 280 lbs., put it in the ferment tub, and dilute it with water—3 pails (about 30 quarts), is the quantity required, and the water used must be of the right temperature as before mentioned. When the salt has sufficiently dissolved, pour the liquor into the trough containing the sponge, break up the sponge, that is, tear it up with the hands into small pieces, and work it until a mixture of a batter-like consistency is obtained. Use a scraper so as to mix in every particle of sponge etc. in the trough. Next strew in sufficient flour to form the dough of the required consistency and texture. “Cut it back” several times, and knead over from one end of the trough to the other. “Knead it well, do not spare it” and turn up the sides so as to thoroughly clear it. Leave it then for about an hour and "pin it” up with the bag board if necessary. After this the dough should be ready for the next stage, viz., “scaling”; throw it on the board, weigh it off, and mould it ready for baking. Before putting the dough into the oven, it should be proved as described below.
It may be well to state here that salt is used in order to flavour the bread, and the water is used to bind the flour. Salt further hardens the gluten, and renders the dough sufficiently firm to support itself during the process of fermentation. It also imparts a certain firmness to the texture of the bread, and prevents, to a certain extent the loss of moisture, i. e., the evaporation of water.
The quantity of water needed depends largely on the quality of the flour. The best quality absorbs far more than flour of inferior quality. New and inferior flour usually requires more salt and less water than the best and finest quality, i. e, “seasoned” flour.
The Prison Cookbook Page 25
