by Georges Roux
2. SETON LLOYD and FUAD SAFAR, ‘Tell Hassuna’, JNES, IV (1945), pp. 255 – 89.
3. c. s. COON, ‘Three Skulls from Hassuna’, Sumer, IV (1950), pp. 93 – 6.
4. T. DABBAGH, ‘Hassuna pottery’, Sumer, XXI (1965), pp. 93 – 111.
5. R. J. BRAIDWOOD, L. BRAIDWOOD, J. G. SMITH and C. LESLIE, ‘Matarrah, a southern variant of the Hassunan assemblage, excavated in 1948’, JNES, XI (1952), pp. 1 – 75.
6. Danish excavations in 1957 – 8. Cf. P. MORTENSEN, Tell Shimshara. The Hassuna Period, Copenhagen, 1970.
7. Excavated by a Soviet team since 1969. For a summary of the results, see N. Y. MERPERT and R. M. MUNCHAEV, ‘Early agricultural settlements in the Sinjar plain, northern Iraq’, Iraq, XXXV (1973), pp. 93 – 113; ‘The earliest levels at Yarim Tepe I and Yarim Tepe II in northern Iraq’, Iraq, XLVI (1987), pp. 1 – 36.
8. Preliminary reports by D. KIRKBRIDE in Iraq from vol. XXXIV (1972) to vol. XXXVII (1975). Also see, by the same author, ‘Umm Dabaghiyah’ in J. CURTIS (ed.), Fifty Years of Mesopotamian Discovery, London, 1982, pp. 11–21.
9. Excavated by the Yarim Tepe team. Summaries in ‘Excavations in Iraq’ in Iraq, XXXV (1973), XXXVII (1975), XVIII (1976) and XXXVIII (1977).
10. Japanese excavations from 1956 to 1965, resumed in 1976. Final reports by N. EGAMI et al.: Telul eth-Thalathat, 3 vols., Tokyo, 1959 – 74.
11. E. E. HERTZFELD, Die Ausgrabungen von Samarra, V, Berlin, 1930.
12. Preliminary reports by B. ABU ES-SOOF, K. A. AL-‘ADAMI, G. WAHIDA and W. YASIN in Sumer, XXI (1965) to XXVI (1970). For a global view of the results: J. MELLAART, The Neolithic of the Near East, London, 1975, pp. 149 – 55.
13. H. HELBAEK, ‘Early Hassunan vegetables from Tell es-Sawwan, near Samarra’, Sumer, XX (1964), pp. 45 – 8.
14. J. OATES, ‘The baked clay figurines from Tell es-Sawwan’, Iraq, XXVIII (1966), pp. 146 – 53.
15. In the Hamrin basin, Samarran houses, pottery and implements have been found by Japanese archaeologists at Tell Songor and by Iraqi archaeologists at Tell Abada. K. MATSUMOTO, ‘The Samarra period at Tell Songor A’ in J. L. HUOT (ed.), Préhistoire de la Mésopotamie, Paris, 1987, pp. 189 – 98; SABAH ABBOUD JASIM, ‘Excavations at Tell Abada’, Iraq, XLV (1983), pp. 165 – 86.
16. Preliminary reports by J. OATES in Sumer, XXII (1966), pp. 51 – 8 and XXV (1969), pp. 133 – 7; Iraq, XXXI (1969), pp. 115 – 52 and XXXIV (1972), pp. 49 – 53. By the same author, ‘Choga Mami’ in J. CURTIS (ed.), Fifty Years… pp. 22 – 9; ‘The Choga Mami traditional’ in J. L. HUOT (ed.), Préhistoire de la Mésopotamie, pp. 163 – 80.
17. M. FREIHERR VON OPPENHEIM, Der Tell Halaf, Leipzig, 1931. Detailed publication: Tell Halaf, I, Die prähistorischen Funde, Berlin, 1943.
18. R. CAMPBELL THOMPSON and M. E. L. MALLOWAN, ‘The British excavations at Nineveh’, AAA, XX (1933), p. 71 ff.
19. M. E. L. MALLOWAN and C. ROSE, ‘Prehistoric Assyria. The excavations at Tell Arpachiyah’, 1933, Iraq, II (1935), pp. 1 – 78.
20. M. E. L. MALLOWAN, ‘The excavations at Tell Chagar Bazar’, Iraq, III (1936), pp. 1 – 86; IV (1937), pp. 91 – 117.
21. ISMAIL HIJARA et al., ‘Arpachiyah, 1976’, Iraq, XLII (1980), pp. 31 – 54; J. CURTIS; ‘Arpachiyah’, in Fifty Years…, pp. 30 – 36.
22. P. J. WATSON, ‘The Halafian culture: a review and synthesis’, in T. C. YOUNG, P. E. L. SMITH, P. MORTENSEN (ed.), The Hilly Flanks and Beyond, Chicago, 1983, pp. 231 – 50.
23. D. FRANKEL, Archaeologists at Work: Studies on Halaf Pottery, London, 1979.
24. This is a physico-chemical technique giving very precise measurements of about 30 elements commonly found in clay, A clay of a specific origin has a specific chemical composition which is both characteristic and unique, like a chemical fingerprint. Since pottery is usually made of the local clay, this method is used to determine the origin of a given piece of pottery (I. PERLMAN, F. ASARO, H. V. MICHEL in Annual Review of Nuclear Science, XXII (1972), pp. 383 – 426). On its application to the Halaf period, see: T. E. DAVIDSON and H. MCKERRELL, ‘The neutron activation analysis of Halaf and ‘Ubaid pottery from Tell Arpachiyah and Tepe Gawra’, Iraq, XLII (1980), pp. 155 – 67.
25. J. MELLAART, The Neolithic of the Near East, London, 1975, pp. 169 – 70.
26. H. R. HALL and C. L. WOOLLEY, Al-'Ubaid, London, 1927 (UE, I).
27. FUAD SAFAR, MOHAMMED ALI MUSTAFA and SETON LLOYD, Eridu, Baghdad, 1982.
28. Some French archaeologists have questioned the religious nature of these buildings and prefer to call them ‘prestige buildings’. They claim that they might have housed eminent members of the communities or served as community halls similar to the mudhifs of the Marsh Arabs. However, the majority of archaeologists believe that most of them were temples.
29. C. ZIEGLER, Die Keramik von derQal'a des Haggi Mohammed, Berlin, 1953.
30. D. STRONACH, ‘Excavations at Ras al ‘Amiya’, Iraq, XXIII (1961), pp. 95 – 137.
31. Y. CALVET, in Larsa et Oueili, Travaux de 1978 – 1981, Paris, 1983, pp. 15 – 70; and in Préhistoire de la Mésopotamie, Paris, 1987, pp. 129 – 52.
32. J. L. HUOT, ‘Un village de basse Mésopotamie: Tell el ‘Oueili à l'Obeid 4’, in Préhistoire de la Mésopotamie, pp. 129 – 52.
33. M. D. ROAF, ‘The Hamrin sites: Tell Madhhur’ in Fifty Years… pp. 40 – 46.
34. J. OATES, ‘Ubaid Mesopotamia reconsidered’ in T. C. YOUNG et al. (Ed.), The Hilly Flanks and Beyond, Chicago, 1983, pp. 251 – 72. These 45 apparently intermittent settlements are spread from the southern border of Kuwait to Bahrain and Qatar; another has been found in Bushir peninsula (Iran). They seem to have been camps of fishermen using ‘Ubaid 2, 3 or 4 pottery made in Mesopotamia and local flint tools.
Chapter 5
1. See, in particular: C. H. KRAELING and R. MCC. ADAMS (eds.), City Invincible, Chicago, 1960; M. B. ROWTON, The Role of Watercourses in the Growth of Mesopotamian Civilization, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1969; P. J. UCKO, R. TRINGHAM and G. W. DIMBLEBY (eds.), Man, Settlement and Urbanism, London, 1972; T. E. DAWNING and MCGUIRE GIBSON (eds.), Irrigation's Impact on Society, Tucson, 1974.
2. R. McC. ADAMS and H. J. NISSEN, The Uruk Countryside, Chicago, 1972; McGUIRE GIBSON, The City and Area of Kish, Miami, 1972. R. MCC. ADAMS, Heartland of Cities, Chicago, 1981.
3. The results of the German excavations at Uruk-Warka (1928 – 39 and 1952 onwards) are published in a series of preliminary reports known as Uruk Vorlaüfiger Berichte (abbreviated UVB). In addition, volumes of monographs (Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka) deal with particular aspects of the excavations.
4. H. LENZEN, Die Tempel der Schicht Archaisch V in Uruk, ZA, 49 (1949), PP. 1 – 20.
5. SETON LLOYD and FUAD SAFAR, ‘Tell Uqair’, JNES, 11 (1943), pp. 131 – 58.
6. Excavated by the Iraqis in the late sixties. Preliminary reports by B. ABOU-ES-SOOF and I. H. HIJARA in Sumer, XXII (1966), XXIII (1967), XXV (1969) and XXIX (1973).
7. German excavations. Preliminary reports by H. HEINRICH et al., in MDOG, CI (1969) to CVIII (1976). General book on the subject: E. STROMMENGER, Habuba Kabira, eine Stadt von 5000 Jahren, Mainz, 1980.
8. An excellent introduction to glyptics can be found in D. COLLON, First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East, London, 1987.
9. Published by A. FALKENSTEIN, Archaische Texte aus Uruk, Leipzig, 1942.
10. D. DIRINGER, Writing, London, 1962; 1. J. GELB, A Study of Writing, Chicago, 1974; D. HAWKINS, ‘The origin and dissemination of writing in Western Asia’ in P. R. S. MOOREY (ed.), The Origins of Civilization, Oxford, 1979; C. B. F. WALKER, Reading the Past: Cuneiforms. London, 1987.
11. D. SCHMANDT-BESSERAT, An Archaic Recording System and the Origin of Writing, Malibu, Calif., 1977.
12. Khafaje: OIC, XX (1936), p. 25; Habuba Kabira: AfO, XXIV (1973), fig. 17; Tell Brak: Fifty Years of Mesopotamian Discovery, London 1982, p. 65, fig. 51.
13. E. MACKAY, Report on Excavations at Jemdet Nasr, Iraq, Chicago
, 1931; H. FIELD and R. A. MARTIN, ‘Painted pottery from Jemdet Nasr’, AJA, 39 (1935), pp. 310 – 18. For more recent excavations, see: R. J. MATTHEWS Iraq, LI (1989), pp. 225 – 48 and LII (1990), pp. 25 – 40. For discussions on this period, consult U. FINKBEINER and W. RÖLLIG (ed.), Ǧamdat Nasr: Period or Regional Style? Wiesbaden, 1986.
14. H. HEINRICH, Kleinfunde aus den archaischen Tempelschichten in Uruk, Leipzig, 1936, pp. 15 – 16, pl. 2 – 3, 38. Hunt stele in UVB, V (1934), pp 11 – 13, pl. 12 – 13. Woman's head in UVB, XI (1940), frontispiece.
15. W. A. WARD, ‘Relations between Egypt and Mesopotamia from prehistoric times to the end of the Middle Kingdom’, JESHO, VII (1974), pp. 121 – 35; I. E. S. EDWARDS, in CAH, I, 2, pp. 41 – 5.
16. SETON LLOYD, ‘Iraq Government soundings at Sinjar’, Iraq, VII (1940), pp. 13 – 21.
17. P. DELOUGAZ and SETON LLOYD, Pre-Sargonid Temples in the Diyala Region, Chicago, 1942.
18. The main articles have been conveniently gathered in T. JONES (ed.), The Sumerian Problem, New York, 1969. See also: A. PARROT AM, II, pp. 308 – 31.
19. There is still considerable uncertainty as regards the meaning of KI.EN.GI. Some scholars think that Shumer and Kengi/Kengi(r) are different pronunciations of the same word in the two Sumerian dialects, emeku and emesal. Others believe that KI.EN.GI is a ‘compound ideogram’, but they disagree on the way it should be read. On this subject, see F. R. KRAUS, Sumerer und Akkader, Amsterdam 1970, pp. 48 – 51.
20. On the question of early contacts between Sumerians and Semites, see: F. R. KRAUS, op cit., and the articles by D. O. EDZARD, W. VON SODEN, I. J. GELB, S. N. KRAMER and P. AMIET in Geneva, VIII (1960), pp. 241 – 314.
21. Skulls from Kish (S. LANGDON, Excavations at Kish, Paris, 1924, pp. 115 – 25, from Ubaid (UE, I, 1927, pp. 214 – 40), from Ur (UE, II, 1934, pp. 400 – 407) and from Eridu (Sumer, V, 1949, p. 103).
22. H. FRANKFORT, The Birth of Civilization in the Near East, London, 1954, p. 50, n.1.
Chapter 6
1. For general studies on Mesopotamian religion, see: S. N. KRAMER, Sumerian Mythology, New York, 1961; W. H. P. RÖMER, ‘The religion of ancient Mesopotamia’ in J. BLEEKER and G. WINDEN-GREN (ed.), Historia Religionum, I, Leiden, 1969; H. RINGGREN, Religions of the Ancient Near East, London, 1973, pp. 1 – 123; T. JACOBSEN, The Treasure of Darkness: a History of Mesopotamian Religion, London, 1976. The most recent and complete book on mythology is that of J. BOTTERO and S. N. KRAMER, Lorsque les Dieux faisaient l'Homme, Paris, 1989.
2. Excellent translations of Sumerian and Akkadian religious texts can be found in R. LABAT, A. CAQUOT, M. SZNYCER and M. VIEYRA, Les Religions du Proche-Orient, Paris, 1970; J. B. PRITCHARD (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd edition, Princeton, 1969; A. FALKENSTEIN and W. VON SODEN, Sumerische und Akkadische Hymnen und Gebete, Stuttgart, 1953.
3. W. G. LAMBERT, ‘The historical development of the Mesopotamian pantheon' in H. GOEDICKE and J. J. M. ROBERTS (ed.), Unity and Diversity, Baltimore/London, 1975.
4. E. CASSIN, La Splendeur Divine, Paris, 1968.
5. H. VORLANDER, Mein Gott, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1975. This personal god is often represented on cylinder-seals of the Ur III period.
6. T. JACOBSEN, The Treasures of Darkness, p. 20.
7. Possibly in the first centuries of the Early Dynastic period, after Enmebaragesi, King of Kish, had built the temple of Enlil in Nippur. [S. N. KRAMER, Geneva, VIII (1960), p. 277, note 25.]
8. Hymn to Enlil: ANET, 3rd Edition, p. 575.
9. List of me in S. N. KRAMER, The Sumerians, Chicago, 1963, p. 116.
10. Myth ‘Enki and the World Order’: S. N. KRAMER, Sumerian Mythology, pp. 59 – 62; The Sumerians, pp. 172 – 83; J. BOTTERO and S. N. KRAMER, Lorsque les Dieux…, pp. 165 – 88.
11. W. W. HALLO and J. VAN DIJK, The Exaltation of Inanna, New Haven/London 1968 (cf. ANET, pp. 579 – 82). Also see the hymns and prayers to Inanna in R. LABAT et al., Les Religions du Proche-Orient, pp. 227 – 57.
12. S. N. KRAMER, The Sacred Marriage Rite, Bloomington, 1969; Le Manage Sacré, Paris, 1983.
13. D. REISMAN, ‘Iddin-Dagan's Sacred Marriage hymn’, JCS, XXV (1973), pp. 185 – 202.
14. Sumerian version in ANET, pp. 52 – 7; Assyrian version, ibid., pp. 106 – 9. J. BOTTERO and S. N. KRAMER, Lorsque les Dieux…, pp. 275 – 300 and 318 – 30.
15. R. GRAVES, The Greek Myths, London, 1955.
16. On these legends, cf.: S. G. F. BRANDON, Creation Legends of the Ancient Near East, London, 1963, and A. HEIDEL, The Babylonian Genesis, Chicago, 1951.
17. W. THESIGER, Geogr. Journal, CXX (1954), p. 276.
18. A. HEIDEL, The Babylonian Genesis, Chicago, 1954; E. A. SPEISER in ANET, pp. 60 – 72 and 501 – 3. J. BOTTERO and S. N. KRAMER, Lorsque les Dieux…, pp. 602 – 79.
19. As suggested by TH. JACOBSEN in The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man, Chicago, 1946, p. 170. Others see in mummu an epithet of Tiamat: ‘mother Tiamat’, ‘creator Tiamat’ or the like [cf. A. HEIDEL, ‘The meaning of mummu in Akkadian literature’, JNES, VII (1948), pp. 98 – 105].
20. M. J. SEUX, Hymnes et Priéres aux Dieux de Babylonie et d‘Assyrie, Paris, 1976. Also see A. FALKENSTEIN and W. VON SODEN, op. cit., note 1 above.
21. W. G. LAMBERT, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, Oxford, 1960, p. 101.
22. The Gilgamesh Epic, Old Babylonian version, III, iv, 6 – 8. (Transl. E. A. SPEISER, ANET. p. 79).
23. ‘Inanna's Descent to the Netherworld’, Obv. 8 – 11 (Transl. A. HEIDEL, op. cit., p. 121).
24. ‘Ludlul bêl nemeqi’, II, 36 – 42, 48 (W.G. LAMBERT, op. cit., p. 41).
Chapter 7
1. S. N. KRAMER, Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta: a Sumerian Epic Tale of Iraq and Iran, Philadelphia, 1952.
2. S. N. KRAMER, ‘Enki and Ninhursag: a Paradise myth' in ANET, PP. 37 – 41.
3. E. A. SPEISER, ‘Adapa’ in ANET, pp. 101 – 3; S. A. PICCHIONI, Il Poemetto di Adapa, Budapest, 1981.
4. G. ROUX, ‘Adapa, le vent et l'eau’, RA, LV (1961), pp. 13 – 33.
5. TH. JACOBSEN, ‘Primitive democracy in ancient Mesopotamia’, JNES, II (1943), pp. 159 – 72; ‘Early political development in Mesopotamia’, ZA, LII (1957), pp. 91 – 140.
6. TH. JACOBSEN, The Sumerian King List, Chicago, 1939.
7. Bad-tibira has been identified with Tell Medain, near Telloh [V.E. CRAWFORD, Iraq, XXII (1960), pp. 197 – 9]. Larak might be Tell el Wilaya, near Kut-el-Imara [Sumer, XV (1959), p. 51]. Sippar is modern Abu Habba, about 32 kilometres south-west of Baghdad, partly excavated by H. RASSAM in 1881 – 2, by V. SCHEIL in 1894 and by W. ANDRAE and J. JORDAN in 1927 (cf. AM, I, pp. 101, 159, 326). Shuruppak is Tell Fara, about 64 kilometres south-east of Diwaniyah, excavated by the Germans in 1902 – 3 (H. HEINRICH and W. ANDRAE, Fara, Berlin, 1931) and by the Americans in 1931 [E. SCHMIDT, Museum Journal, (Philadelphia) XXII (1931), pp. 193 – 245].
8. ‘Gilgamesh’, tablet XI, 9 – 196 (quotations from A. HEIDEL'S translation). See also: E. SOLLBERGER, The Flood, London, 1962.
9. Usually identified with mount Pir Omar Gudrun, 2,612 metres, in the Zagros range, south of the Lower Zab [E. A. SPEISER, AASOR, VIII (1928), pp. 18, 31].
10. For these early versions, cf.: ANET, pp. 42 – 4, 99 – 100, 104–6, 512 – 14, and W. G. LAMBERT and A. R. MILLARD., Atra-hasis. The Babylonian Story of the Flood, Oxford, 1969.
11. SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY, AJ, IX (1929), pp. 323 – 30; X (1930), pp. 330 – 41; Ur of the Chaldees, London, 1950, p. 29; Excavations at Ur, London, 1954, pp. 34 – 6; UE, IV, pp. 15 ff.
12. Among recent publications on this subject, cf.: M. E. L. MALLOWAN, ‘Noah's Flood reconsidered’, Iraq, XXVI (1964), pp. 62 – 82; H. J. LENZEN, ‘Zur Flutschicht in Ur’, BM, III (1964), pp. 52 – 64; R. L. RAIKES, ‘The physical evidence for Noah's Flood’, Iraq, XXVIII (1966), pp. 52 – 63.
13. A. D. KILMER, ‘The Mesopotamian concept of overpopulation and its solution reflected in mythology’, Orientalia, XLI (1972), pp. 160 – 77.<
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14. H. DE GENOUILLAC, Premières Recherches Archéologiques à Kich, 2 vol., Paris, 1924 – 5; S. LANGDON, L. C. WATELIN, Excavations at Kish, 3 vol., Paris, 1924 – 3. Updating by P. R. S. MOOREY, Kish Excavations, 1922 – 3, Oxford, 1978. Present name of the site: al-Uhaimir.
15. English translation by E. A. SPEISER in ANET, pp. 114 – 18. The latest, most complete study is that of J. V. KINNIER WILSON, The Legend of Etana, a New Edition, Warminster, 1985.
16. S. N. KRAMER; ‘Gilgamesh and Agga’, ANET, pp. 44 – 7; W. H. P. RÖMER, Das Sumerische Kurzepos Bilgamesh und Akka, Neukirchen-Vluyin, 1980.
17. For Enmerkar, see note 1 above, plus: A. BERLIN, Enmerkar and Ensuhkeshdanna: a Sumerian Narrative Poem, Philadelphia, 1979. For Lugalbanda, C. WILCKE, Das Lugalbanda Epos, Wiesbaden, 1969.
