The chevauléger-lanciers carried the chasseur's saber, a single pistol, and a lance that was 8 feet 10 inches long. Their “maréchaux des logis” (sergeants) and “fourriers” (quartermasters) did not carry lances. In their place they carried a second pistol and a musketoon. A total of 228 men in the regiment did not carry lances.
In the cuirassier and carabinier regiments, all ranks from private to general wore the cuirass. With front and back plate, the cuirass weighed sixteen pounds, so it is no surprise that an unhorsed cuirassier's first act was to divest himself of this encumbrance. Nonetheless, the cuirass was substantial enough to turn the blow of a saber or bayonet and reportedly could turn a musket shot at 45 paces. The cuirass was made of steel. The one worn by the carabiniers was copper plated, front and back, but the plating was not very good and did not weather well.
Unlike the infantry, the cavalry regiments all wore regimentally distinctive uniforms. They carried their extra uniforms and equipment in a portmanteau tied behind the saddle. The dragoons and cuirassiers kept their shirts spread out and laid lengthwise, with two pairs of breeches folded and placed over them, running in the opposite direction. The powdersack was on one side, the toilet kit on the other. The nightcap, handkerchiefs, feed bag, and watering bag were placed in the portmanteau. A pair of shoes, the garrison cap, and other small personal effects were placed on top of this.
The light cavalry spread their shirts and breeches the same as the cuirassiers. The waistcoat was folded in two and placed in the corners with the scarf and handkerchiefs. Other equipment was placed like that of the heavy cavalry as well.
In addition, the light cavalry carried two bags suspended from the pommels of their saddles. The left bag carried medical dressings, boxes of grease, brushes, and powder sacks. The right bag carried the horse's hay ration and the trooper's bread ration.
French Artillery
At the beginning of 1812, the French artillery establishment consisted of nine foot artillery regiments, each with twenty-two companies; six horse artillery regiments, each with seven companies, except the 6th Regiment, which had eight companies; fourteen principal and thirteen “bis” train battalions, each with six companies; two pontoon battalions, the first having eleven companies and the second six companies; eighteen artillery “ouvrier” or artisan repair companies; five armorer companies; and one train “ouvrier” company.
In 1805 the foot companies had a strength of 100 men each, and the horse artillery companies had a strength of 96 men. Changes were introduced by the Decree of 18 October 1811 which raised the strength of a foot company to 4 officers and 110 men and a horse company to 4 officers and 96 men.
Since an artillery company consisted only of the gunners and their guns, it was not capable of movement until merged with a train company to form a “division of artillery.” The train company, drawn from a train battalion, provided the equipment and horses necessary to move and service the guns. The train companies had one officer and 140 soldiers.
The train battalions had an unusual practice. During peacetime only the principal battalions existed, but during wartime the train battalion divided into halves and each half was brought up to strength with drafts forming a “principal” and a “bis” battalion. The thirteen “bis” battalions were formed this way.
In peacetime the artillerymen were assigned to garrison duties, and their guns and equipment, except for enough to permit limited training, were stored in magazines and arsenals. In 1811, while preparing for the campaign, Napoleon had this equipment massed in Strasbourg, Wesel, and Mainz.
In the field, each gun limber, caisson, and field forge was drawn by six horses. All other wagons were drawn by four horses. The fully equipped “artillery division” was divided into three two-gun sections, each commanded by an officer. The 12pdr guns and the howitzers were serviced by three caissons, while the 6pdrs had only two. In 1812 Napoleon made arrangements for each gun to have 200 rounds of ammunition with it. More ammunition was carried in the various divisional, corps, and army parks.
Artillery Equipment
The artillery used by the French in 1812 was manufactured according to the System of the Year XI. This system, fathered by Marmont, succeeded the Gribeauval System of pre-Revolutionary days. The Gribeauval System had utilized 4pdr, 8pdr, and 12pdr cannons as well as 6-inch and 8-inch howitzers. The System of the Year XI replaced them with all-brass 6pdr and 12pdr cannons and 5.5-inch howitzers. The only unique part of the Gribeauval System that it retained was the ready ammunition box between the trails of the gun carriage.
This change of systems was made to minimize the number of different rounds of ammunition and to replace the 4pdr/8pdr system with a gun that did both tasks. The 4pdr lacked any real firepower and the 8pdr was too heavy, The 6pdr made an excellent compromise between the two cannons. In addition, it allowed captured 6pdr ammunition to be readily used.
The 5.5-inch howitzer was not, however, as successful a change. It was too light for many of the 6- or 8-inch howitzer's tasks, but its caisson could carry seventy-five 5.5-inch rounds vice the fifty 6-inch rounds.
Artillery fired three types of ammunition—-ball, cannister, or case— and the howitzers fired an explosive shell. Cannister or case were so-called because they were a quantity of small metal balls contained in a metal cannister that would just fit down the gun's bore, which had the effect of a large-shot gunshell when fired. It had an effective range of 100 paces but would carry farther. When defending against charging cavalry, fire was held to fifty paces, and a single gun could keep its own frontage clear of attacking cavalry.
Ball shot consisted of just that, a large solid metal ball that acted much like a bowling ball, skipping across the battlefield until it came to a rest. This was used to engage targets at ranges from 300 to 1,200 yards.
The explosive howitzer shell, when fired, often combined the skipping action of the ball shot, but when the simple fuse reached the main charge it would explode, scattering fragments in a very haphazard manner. This shell could be used to set fires and was the best weapon for attacking fortified positions where ball shot would have problems penetrating.
The horses assigned to artillery units had to be fast enough to cover 800 yards in nine minutes at a pace, in five minutes at a trot, and in two minutes at a gallop. They had to be able to carry 180 pounds for twelve hours, 300 pounds for eight hours and 150 pounds while towing 750 pounds for 20 miles. In addition, they had to be able to pull 1,500 pounds on horizontal terrain and 1,100 pounds on uneven terrain.
Preparations for the Campaign
In preparation for the 1812 campaign, Napoleon assigned two pieces of regimental artillery to most of his infantry regiments and four to a few. Each division received one horse and one 6pdr foot battery. Each corps received a “double batterie de reserve” consisting of two 12pdr foot batteries. Each light cavalry division received one horse battery and each heavy cavalry division received two. This brought the total strength of artillery assigned to the French and Italian portions of the Grande Armée to fifty-one batteries: 60 12pdr cannons, 214 6pdr cannons, and 106 howitzers. The artillery attached to the Guard consisted of eight horse batteries, eight foot batteries, and four line batteries, bringing the total to 730 guns.
The 3pdr and 4pdr regimental guns were introduced to counteract the low degree of morale among the new recruits in the rapidly expanding infantry regiments. It was hoped that the reassuring boom of a pair of guns would both encourage them and supplement the volume of their fire. Regimental artillery first reappeared when Napoleon issued the Decree of 9 June 1809, reinstating regimental batteries in six of the regiments serving in the “Armée d'Allemagne.” The Decree of 11 February 1811 increased the strength of the regimental batteries and their associated train to a total of forty-four noncommissioned officers and men serving the guns and fifty-six serving the caissons and other vehicles. The entire company was commanded by a lieutenant who had a sous-lieutenant, a sergeant-major, and a fourrier in his staff.
The implementation of the instructions to form regimental batteries was slow. The first guns did not reach their regiments until 1 May 1811, when the 33rd Légère received them. Davout reported to Napoleon on 20 April that the guns were available to equip six regiments, but the usual bureaucratic lethargy held up their dispatch to the regiments.
The Decree of 22 April 1811 ordered that the regiments destined to become part of the Corps d'Observation should expand their regimental batteries to four guns. It also ordered that the Corps d'Observation du Rhin and the Corps d'Observation d'Italie should organize their regimental batteries with two guns, a cartridge caisson, and a military transport caisson.
The French minister of war, the duke de Feltre, reported to Napoleon on 12 June 1811 that fifteen regiments in the Corps d'Observation de l'Elbe had formed their regimental batteries. Of the twenty-nine regiments in the Corps d'Observation du Rhin, only the 5th Légère, Joseph Napoleon Regiment, the Portuguese Legion, Tirailleurs Corsicans, Tirailleurs du Po, and the 2nd Swiss Regiment had not formed regimental batteries.
The train units also received the same attention during 1811. The Decree of 29 June 1811 began the process of increasing the strength of the train battalions. Nine battalions were raised to a total strength of 12 officers and men in the staff, 141 officers and men in each of the six companies, and a total of 1572 horses in the battalion. A series of decrees, on 2 February 1811, 10 April 1811, and 4 December 1811, reorganized, expanded, and assigned the various train companies to the various corps of the forming Grande Armée.
To support and maintain his artillery, Napoleon issued the Decree of 20 March 1812, which reorganized the artillery “ouvrier” (repairmen) companies. These battalions had 149 officers and men. The five squadrons varied in strength from twenty-nine to thirty-two men each. These men actively repaired artillery equipment, limbers, caissons, and other such equipment. They did not work on the gun tubes.
Napoleon also created armorer companies with the Decree of 20 March 1812. These companies had a total of sixty-eight officers and men. In contrast to the ouvriers, the armorers worked on the gun tubes.
Engineering Units
In addition to these units normally considered part of the artillery establishment, other units were assigned to the general parks and reserves. These units were the pontooniers, miners, sappers, and engineering train units.
The Grande Armée had thirteen companies of pontooniers in 1812, seven in the 1st Pontoonier Battalion and six in the 2nd Pontoonier Battalion. The battalion staff had eight officers and men. The companies had 100 officers and men. The staff attended to the administration of the battalion and never went into the field. Indeed, the companies were scattered individually throughout the French army and sometimes only detachments were assigned to various corps.
There were twelve miner companies in the French army. Each was organized with 100 officers and men. Six of these, four from the 1st Battalion and two from the 2nd Battalion, were destined to join the Grande Armée.
The sappers were a highly respected formation. Their duties consisted of clearing obstacles under fire and leading assaults in house-to-house fighting. They were highly trained and very professional—so much so that they vied with the Grenadiers à Pied of the Imperial Guard for superiority in morale and military bearing. The sappers were exceedingly proud of their heritage and uniform. When it was decreed that they were to surrender their bearskin bonnets, the badge of their office, they flagrantly disregarded the order. They would have sooner shaved their beards, which were as much a symbol of their office and status as the cherished bearskins.
There were two types of sappers, however. The “French” sappers are what were just described. The French sapper battalions were organized with nine 80-man companies and a staff of nine officers and men.
There were also a small number of labor battalions that bore the name “sappers” or “pionniers,” but these had none of the military prowess or history. The first of these was the Sapeurs de l'Ile d'Elbe. It was formed with four companies and totaled 731 men. It was raised from the French penal regiments by the Decree of 18 June 1811. The other was the Pionniers Espagnols. This battalion had four companies and a total of 800 men raised from Spanish prisoners of war. This unit was so unreliable it wasn't even armed. Its only weapons were spades.
Like the artillery, the engineers had no indigenous transportation, and there was a separate engineering train battalion. This battalion was organized from the diverse, unrelated train companies that existed throughout the French army by the Decree of 25 March 1811. The engineering train companies carried every sort of engineering tool, material, and explosive necessary for sieges and other engineering work. Because of the vast assortment of equipment, the companies were never used intact, but were broken up, and those portions required were attached to the corps where they were needed.
French Supply Train
In addition to the combat and combat support units, another formation existed for the sole purpose of providing provisions for the combat units. Napoleon was the first general to establish a military supply system which tended the needs of the entire army, instead of just specific regiments.
In a letter dated 24 January 1812, Napoleon discussed his plans for this train with the count de Cessac. Napoleon had selected eight “batail-lons d'equipage militaire” with a total of 2,016 wagons for use in his pending campaign. A further four new military equipage battalions which were equipped with one-horse wagons, four newly raised oxen military equipage battalions, and the Italian oxen military equipage battalions rounded out the supply forces.
This force was to be the main supply organization for the Grande Armée, and Napoleon should not be condemned for its failure to meet the needs of his army. It is only since the Second World War and the advent of the gasoline engine that an army has been able to transport the supplies necessary to sustain itself. Napoleon's supply system was dependent on the capabilities of the horse, and the horse's ability to move material was further reduced by the limitations of the wagons and roads of the day.
In preparation for what he knew would be a gigantic undertaking, Napoleon issued a number of decrees that established the strengths of these battalions. The Decree of 2 February 1811 established a new organization for the 2nd, 9th, and 12th military equipage battalions with six companies. Their companies had 129 officers and men and 42 wagons. The battalion staff consisted of a captain, four other officers, and nine noncommissioned officers.
The same decree established the 1st Light Military Equipage Battalion. It had a staff of four officers and eight noncommissioned officers. It had six companies organized with sixty-three officers and men. Unlike the other equipage battalions, this unit was a pack battalion and had ninety-two mules per company.
The Decree of 25 April 1811 reorganized the 10th Military Equipage Battalion such that the first two companies were equipped with wagons and the last four had mules. The first two companies had 129 men, 12 wagons, and 206 horses. The other four had 76 men, 12 horses, and 102 mules. The unit was formed from units then serving in Portugal.
The Decree of 24 August 1811 created the Guard Military Equipage Battalion. It had a staff and five companies. It had a total of 17 officers, 775 men, 1,165 horses, and 183 wagons, forges, and caissons.
The Decree of 24 January 1812 raised the 14th and 15th Military Equipage Battalions. These two units were the first units “à la comtoise,” that is, equipped with light, four-wheeled wagons drawn by a single horse. The battalions had six companies, each company having 100 wagons, an ammunition wagon, and a field forge. These battalions had paper strengths of 681 men, 135 mounts, and 690 draft horses.
This decree also raised the 20th and 21st Military Equipage Battalions. Both battalions had six companies with a total of 483 men, fifty wagons, each drawn by two oxen, a field forge drawn by four oxen, and an ammunition wagon drawn by four oxen. One soldier was assigned to each pair of oxen in the company, and there were an additional eight men and eight yo
kes of oxen, which gave the battalion a total strength of 62 horses and 744 oxen.
The Decree of 23 February 1812 modified the Decree of 24 January 1812 and set the strength of the “bataillon à la comtoise” (one-horse wagon battalion) such that the staff had 14 officers and men and the companies each had 145 officers and men. Each company had 100 wagons, an ammunition wagon, and a field forge.
The Imperial Guard
No discussion of the French Napoleonic army would be complete without a discussion of the Imperial Guard. This force, which was actually a small army in itself, had its origins in Napoleon's personal bodyguard during the revolutionary period. The guard began with a few hundred men, and by 1814 it was to consist of thirty infantry regiments, fourteen cavalry regiments, two artillery regiments, and a number of ancillary units such as pontooniers, a military train, sappers, and a fire brigade.
By 1812 the Imperial Guard had already earned the excellent reputation that still springs to mind nearly two centuries later. It was to take a significant role in the 1812 campaign. As an elite corps, it acted as a ready reserve of reliable soldiers who could either deliver the “coup de grace” or, by their élan and professionalism, save a desperate situation. In 1812 the role of the Guard was the latter.
In 1812 the Imperial Guard consisted of the following:
1st Grenadiers à Pied (Old Guard)
2nd Grenadiers à Pied (Old Guard)
Napoleon's Invasion of Russia Page 6
