of places, 70
retrospective and prospective, 71
for scenes, 50
mental actions, 86, 88, 91–94, 187, 284
mental animation, 97–98
mental construction, 95–97, 95 (fig.)
mental imagery, 61
mental rotation, 88–94, 88 (fig.)
connection between mental actions and physical ones, 91–94
gender differences, 101
gesturing and, 127
as measure of spatial ability, 90, 99
visual-spatial transformation, 89
mental spatial framework. See spatial framework
metaphor, 187, 220
metaphoric gestures, 118–119
mimicry, social, 111–112
mind
creativity and, 267–269
enhancements, 282–283
mind wandering, 268–269
Mind in the Eyes test, 45
mirror neurons, 21–23, 111
mirroring, 21–23, 30–31, 66, 112
moment-to-moment transitions, 245
motion
in comics, 246
lines and, 228–230
reading/writing order and, 225
in space, 1–2, 283
time as, 164
motor resonance, 22, 23–25
motor simulation, 23–24
moving ego, 164–165
moving time, 164–165
music, 135–136, 135 (fig.), 211
names for things, 36–39
naming game, 36, 283
narration in comics, 249
narrative arc, 243, 246
narrative voice, in stories, 239
nature, world designed by, 278 (fig.)
navigation, 72
abilities, 102–103
gender differences, 103
neural underpinnings of, 68–71
near, perspective and, 181
networks, 283
organization of, 156
outside perspectives, 92, 141, 182
partonomies, 159
places and paths, 152–153
representations, 161
social, 162
trees, 222, 283
as trees, 161
neurons, 15
connections between, 156, 157
mirror, 21–23, 111
sensory, 11–13
single-cell recordings from, 68
trees and, 160–161
nodes, as boxes, 155
north, on maps, 197–198
notation
logic and physics, 209–211, 209 (fig.)–210 (fig.)
music and dance, 211–212
notation systems, 178–179, 206, 207–208
notes, visual, 237, 237 (fig.)
number line estimation, 129–130
number systems, 174–175
approximate, 174–175, 176, 177, 178, 208
exact, 175, 177–179, 208
numbers
notation systems, 178–179
symbols, 206
tallies, 203–205, 204 (fig.)
objects, segmentation, 243
one-to-one correspondences, 120, 130–131, 134–135, 177, 179, 205, 208, 279, 285–287
order/ordering
by amount, 174
direction of, 224–225
implications of, 175–177
by non-human animals, 173–174
number systems, 174–179
by quality, preference of value, 173
space and, 165
time and, 165, 170–172
transitive inference, 176
ubiquity of ordering, 172–174
ordered lines, 180
organizations, perspectives in, 183–184
outside perspective, 182
overview
in organizations, 183–184
perspective, 147, 148, 273–274
provided by maps, 182–183
page, putting thought on, 67, 97, 123, 126, 130, 132, 147, 148, 167, 168, 170–171, 181, 190, 191, 201, 206–208, 211, 224, 229, 241–244, 247, 253, 257–275
Paleolithic map, 194–195, 195 (fig.)
paragraphs, prose segmented by, 244
parity rule, 127
partonomies, 77, 78, 159, 160
parts, words describing, 185
past, referring to, 190–191
paths
asymmetric arrows and, 232
on maps, 202, 228
networks, 152–153
in route descriptions, 144–145
through time, 165
patterns, 2, 156–157, 185, 277, 279, 284–288
people, 39–49
describing, 40
eyes, 45–46
faces and emotion, 41–45
recognition of faces, 40–41
perception
action and, 16–19, 21–23, 24
animacy, 23
biases and, 55–57
constructive, 266
continuum from perception to action, 105–106
embodiment, 23
enhancements of, 282
impeded by biases, 169
inference versus, 55
linked to meaning by segments, 216
memory override of, 64
mind override of, 55–57
number systems, 174–175
representations from, 87–88
perceptual regrouping, 264–267
performance, map design and, 203
periphery, 156, 226
perspective, 180–184
absolute, 147
allocentric, 143, 146–148, 149, 153, 165–166, 183–184
bird’s-eye, 147
on body orientation, 92–94, 92 (fig.)
calendar, 166
choosing between yours and mine, 145–146
distant spatial, 181
egocentric, 65–66, 142–146, 153, 183–184
embedded, 274
frames and, 247, 249
insider, 10, 92–94, 141, 182, 273
language differences and, 150–151
maps and, 195, 197–198
mixing, 149–150
near and far, 181
in organizations, 183–184
outsider, 92, 141, 182
overview, 147, 148, 273–274
route, 144
shared, 142, 143
spatial reasoning, 81–83
survey, 147, 148, 166
switching, 153, 270–271
taking other, 60, 63–66, 65 (fig.)
talk and thought about space, 142–153
on time, 165–166
ways to find new, 273–274
perspective taking, 268, 270–271
and creativity, 270–271
empathetic, 269
increasing accuracy of prediction, 271–273
petroglyph, 189 (fig.), 214–215
physics
Feynman, 210–211, 210 (fig.)
gestures and, 127, 129
pictograms, 194, 236
pictures
associations to, 14
remembered better than words, 242
words contrasting with, 249–250
places
brain cells associated to, 68–72
memory and organization of, 70
networks, 152–153
parts and, 159
recognition, categorization, and understanding of, 49–51
in route descriptions, 145
point-light videos, experiments with, 24–25
points/pointing, 36, 112, 113, 117–118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 129, 131, 136, 137, 144, 145, 151, 179, 180, 184, 196, 229, 230, 243, 283, 284, 285
aliases of, 156
as basic building blocks, 157
on diagrams, 156, 157, 191, 230, 236
on maps, 199, 202, 227, 228
as stationary, 228
power, mapping of, 226
practice
mental rotation improvement with, 91
spaced versus massed,
266
spatial ability, 99, 103–105
prediction, 271–273
preferences, 173
map design and, 203
ordering and, 224–225
prepositions, with spatial meaning, 226
primates, imitation in, 283
Principle of Correspondence, 193–194, 201, 208, 210, 235
Principle of Use, 193–194, 201, 208, 210, 235
prismatic glasses, experiments with, 16–17
problem-solving strategies, gestures and, 121, 125, 127–130
process, idea of, 271
production, map design and, 203
production, preference, performance (Three Ps), 203, 231, 239
propositions, 186, 210
prosopagnosia, 41
proximity, 1, 75–76, 187
qualities, as ordering principle, 173
quantity, as ordering/organizing principle, 175–176, 224–225
rats, navigation experiments with, 68–69
reading/writing direction, mapping and, 223–225
reasoning, from diagrams, 209–211, 209 (fig.)–210 (fig.)
reference frames. See frame of reference
reference points, 80–81
regrouping, 264–267
relationships, words describing, 185
representations
described, 87–88
formats and properties of, 87–88
perceptions and, 87–88
sources of, 87
worldly expressions of thought, 193
rhythm, 26, 29, 31
role-playing, as perspective taking, 273
Rosling, Hans, 53–54, 280
rotation, 74–75
rotation, mental, 88–94, 88 (fig.)
route
as egocentric, 183–184
perspective, 144, 145, 146, 152, 165, 166, 182, 183
as sets of directions, 51, 79, 92, 94, 113, 114, 144, 145, 148, 152, 182, 183, 202, 203, 228, 232, 285
route descriptions, 144–145, 146
route maps
cognitive design guidelines for, 202–203
elements of, 227–228
production, preference, performance, 203
rubber arm, experiments with, 18–19
Rubin, Gideon, 4
Rules of Thumb
for assembly instructions, 219–220
for map design, 201–203
scenes, 49–50
change blindness, 50–51
splitting, 247
schematic maps, 199
scripts, 85–86
scrutiny, comics and, 242–243
Second General Fact Worth Remembering, 123
seeing, words of, 184
segmentation, 216, 243–245
self-regulation, 169
semantic congruity, 175–176
semantics
of arrows, 233
of diagrams, 220–237
empirical, 227
sensation, action and, 16–19, 30
sensory input, 11–13, 15
shape
for recognizing and categorizing things, 35
words describing, 185
similarity
cognitive reference points and, 81
as distance in conceptual space, 79
size, words describing, 185
sketch maps, 145, 227–228, 228 (fig.), 285
sketches
architects, designers, 262–266
cocktail napkins, 262
dance sequences, 138
new interpretations of, 264–267, 265 (fig.)
smiling, 42–43
social glue, gestures as, 136–140
social judgments, 73, 79, 82
social mimicry, 111–112
social networks, 162
space
actions in, 115–116, 130, 277, 288
around us, 59–83
of the body, 9–31
forms in, 285–286
gestures and, 122
language and, 184–187
mapping abstract concepts to, 224
marks in, 220, 226–227
in math, 208
moving in, 283
order and, 165
place in, 223
talk and thought about, 142–153, 155–156
time and, 163–165
spatial ability, 98–106
acquiring spatial skills, 103–105
assembly ability, 217–218
gender differences, 101
genetic and environmental influences on, 99
improvement with practice, 99
measuring, 99–101, 100 (fig.)
mental rotation and, 90, 99
scope of, 105–106
uses of, 99, 102–103
spatial alignment, 76–77
spatial descriptions, shared perspective and, 143
spatial framework, 73
body-centered, 60, 66–67
flattening, 66–68
new environments, 64
taking a different spatial perspective, 60, 63–66
spatial hierarchies, 77–79
spatial language of the designed world, 286–288
spatial maps, 71–72
spatial-motor reasoning, 93, 126, 128, 210
spatial-numerical association of response (SNARC) effect, 176
spatial position, use for calculations, 206
spatial reasoning, 76–77
alignment, 76–77
common fate, 74–75
grouping, 74, 75–77
hierarchical organization, 77–79
rotation, 74–75
straightening, 80
spatial schemas, 72–73
spatial thinking, 57
abstract thought and, 71–74
directionality and, 62–63
speech balloons, in comics, 249
spiral, 106, 156, 169, 185, 191, 240, 277, 280, 288
splash pages, 243
spontaneous graphing, 223–226
sports, spatial abilities and, 104
spraction, 277, 288
stars, mapping of, 195
stories, 239–255
comics, 240–255
as discourse form, 239–240
facts overridden by, 240
straightening, and spatial reasoning, 80
Stratton, George, 17
structure, 2–3, 132–133
subordinate categories of things, 37
superforecasters, 271–273
superordinate categories, 36–37, 49
surveys, 152, 182, 183–184
symbolic distance, 175
symbolic thought, 190
symbols
for arithmetic operations, 206
for numbers, 179, 206, 208
for position in space, 206
words as, 141
synecdoche, 220
system
action, 12, 24
address, 73
causal, 123
cognitive, 205
complex, 132
computer, 169, 283
diagrammatic, 221
dynamic, 132, 233–234
geometry, 209
mechanical, 97, 98, 101, 102, 123, 128, 223, 233–234
mirror, 21, 23, 25, 30, 31, 66
motion, 24
navigation, 103, 152
nervous, 18, 169, 176
notation, 178–179, 206, 208, 211, 212
number, 174–175, 176–179, 182, 205, 208
self-regulatory, 169
sensory, 11, 15
STEM, 102, 160, 233–234
transport, 198
visual, 35
T-O map, 197, 197 (fig.)
tables, inferences from, 231–232
talking
about space, 142–153, 155–156
about time, 170–172
from an allocentric perspective, 147
gestures and, 124
linear nature of, 152
mixed perspectives and reference fr
ames, 149
thought and, 141–142
tally, 203–205, 204 (fig.), 208
taste, categories of, 43
taxonomy, 77, 159–160
teaching, 121, 129, 190, 237, 241, 260, 282–283
technology, 270, 281–282
themes, as organizing principle, 159, 279, 286
thermostat, 169, 271
things
hierarchical organization, 36–39
names/labels for, 36–39
recognition, categorization, and understanding of, 35–39
words describing, 185
thinking/thought, 283–286
as actions on ideas, mental actions, 86, 88, 91, 92, 94, 187, 284
categorical, 224
creative, 263
dimensional, 224
divergent, 266, 269
gestures as aid to, 124–139, 284
graphics, externalized and promoted by, 284–285
language and, 90
minimal unit of, 186
putting into the world, 189–193
revealed by gestures, 119–121, 125, 130–131
symbolic, 190
talk and, 141–142
worldly expressions of, 191–193
Three Ps (production, preference, performance), 203, 231, 239
time
allocentric perspective on, 165–166
calendar perspective, 122, 164, 166, 170, 171, 182
causality, 212, 214
circular, 167–169
directionality, 170, 213, 223–225
distortions and biases, 166–167
gestures and, 122–123, 133–134, 171
language and, 164, 170–171
on lines, 163–165
measurement, 212–214
as movement, 164–165
moving ego, 164–165
moving time, 164–165
music notation, 211
order and, 165, 170–173
space and, 163–165
unidirectional, 167
toddler, 36, 131, 194, 241
tool use, 17–18
top-down cognitive strategy, 266–267
trade-offs, 15, 39
transactions, between mind and world, 206–207
transformation order, 96–97
transformations
geometric analogies, 95–97, 95 (fig.)
mental as internalized actions, 88
mental rotation, 88–94
of thought, 85–106
transitions in comics, 244–245
transitive inference, 172, 173–174, 176
trees, 159–161, 222, 283
turns, in route maps, 202, 227
unintended discoveries, 264
use, principle of, 193–194, 201, 208, 210, 235
valence, 42, 47
value, as ordering principle, 173
verbal ability, 99
vertical direction, value carried by, 223, 225
vertical plane, 170–172
visual explanations, 260–261, 260 (fig.)–261 (fig.)
visual-spatial reasoning, 127
visual-spatial transformation, 88–97, 98–99, 99–101, 105–106
voice, emotion and, 47–48
wall paintings, in Egyptian tombs, 215, 215 (fig.), 216
when, brain’s processing of, 34–35
where, sense of, 59–60
Whorf-Sapir hypothesis, 151
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