by Mark Lamster
The dangers posed by a dogmatic foreign policy, an insular government, and a renunciation of the world system of diplomatic exchange have never been more apparent. Indeed, it can be astonishing how little distance separates our century from the time of Rubens, despite the passing of so many years and our extraordinary leaps forward into modernity. Fully four centuries ago, long before the idea became a commonplace, Rubens understood that the interests of the entire international community are bound together inseparably, that Europe is united by a “chain of confederations.” Today, that metaphor has become a physical reality. The European Union, headquartered in the artist’s native Belgium, seems even in its imperfections a fulfillment of his vision of a continent at peace, administered by policy makers accountable for their actions.
Rubens was hardly naive about the commercial, religious, and political forces pulling against the fragile stability of international community. He was deeply suspicious of alliances of convenience and saw how easy it was for regional conflict to metastasize into global calamity. But he also knew that international bonds represented an opportunity for a pragmatic diplomat; relationships could be leveraged and resources deployed to spread peace across an entire continent united by mutual interest. It was that vision that drew him into political affairs, and kept him engaged even when forces aligned against him. “I should like the whole world to be in peace, that we might live in a golden age instead of an age of iron,” he wrote. In his art and in his diplomatic work, he gave color to that dream, even if he never saw it fully realized.
It is sadly ironic that Rubens’s homeland is once again a place divided against itself. Chauvinist voices in Dutch-speaking Flanders and Francophone Wallonia threaten to dissolve a fragile federal union held together by an increasingly pressed centrist coalition. For Belgians fighting to save their union, Rubens should be a useful symbol, a universally esteemed treasure beloved by all. His artistic project was defined by an essential internationalism, by an ability to merge disparate traditions into a unified, coherent whole. Politically, he was a relentless advocate for regional peace and stability, goals for which he worked tirelessly, at great personal sacrifice. Though he could justifiably claim to be a citizen of the world, and would have been a welcome emigrant in any one of Europe’s great capitals, he made his home in Antwerp, a small city that prized its cosmopolitan history and tradition of openness. A dozen languages could be heard on its streets, Dutch and French among them. Rubens was comfortable in either of those tongues, but given the choice, he spoke Italian. That was an intellectual’s choice, and one that indicated a certain progressive humanism, a way of thinking informed by but not captive to history. It was that vision, simultaneously looking forward and back, to which he gave such dramatic color, on canvas and in life.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project took flight in the office of Sarah Burnes, an adviser and advocate of Rubensian wisdom for whom no praise is too great. Thanks also to Chris Parris-Lamb for his encouragement, and to all of David Gernert’s expert staff for their support.
It is an honor to be published by Nan A. Talese. I’m grateful for her faith and her gimlet editorial eye. Ronit Feldman has improved every aspect of this book, and has kept me sane with her optimism and clear thinking. Thanks also to Lorna Owen and Luke Epplin for their contributions. My gratitude goes to all my fellow travelers in the publishing industry in this uncertain time for the book.
My interest in the political career of Peter Paul Rubens was sparked years ago in a seminar room under the direction of Elizabeth Alice Honig. I am immensely grateful for that early inspiration, and for her generous support throughout this project.
Renilde Loeckx made it possible for me to conduct research on Rubens in Belgium. Thanks also to Liliane Opsomer in New York, and to Frank Deijnckens, Carl Depauw, and Ben van Beneden in Antwerp.
This book was written in the Frederick Lewis Allen Room at the New York Public Library. To work daily at that institution is an extraordinary gift. I thank all the many librarians, there and elsewhere, who assisted me, especially David Smith and Paula Baxter. Thanks also to my Allen Room colleagues Beth Fertig, Susan Jacoby, Mark Lee, and Alex Rose.
I thank all of my friends and family for their support, especially Mark and Valeria Kuchment. My parents, Hal and Jane Lamster, warrant sainthood.
Even when life is most difficult, my daughter, Eliza, finds a way to glow my stars. Finally and above all I thank my wife, Anna Kuchment, who gives color to my world. Rubens himself could not do her justice.
CAST OF CHARACTERS
THE RUBENS FAMILY
Peter Paul Rubens: artist, diplomat, scholar
Jan Rubens: father of Rubens
Maria Pypelinckx Rubens: mother of Rubens
Philip Rubens: brother of Rubens
Isabella Brant Rubens: first wife of Rubens
Jan Brant: father-in-law of Rubens
Jan “the Catholic” Brant: Dutch cousin of Rubens
Helena Fourment: second wife of Rubens
THE SPANISH
Philip II: king of Spain; son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
Philip III: king of Spain; son of Philip II
Philip IV: king of Spain; son of Philip III
Duke of Lerma: chief minister of Philip III
Count-Duke of Olivares: chief minister of Philip IV
Duke of Alva: governor of the Spanish Netherlands
Margaret of Parma: governor of the Spanish Netherlands
Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma: son of Margaret, governor of the Spanish Netherlands
Archduke Albert of Austria: sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands
Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia: daughter of Philip II; wife of Archduke Albert and co-sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands
Ambrogio Spinola: military commander of the Spanish Netherlands Diego
Messia: Spanish statesman; son-in-law of Spinola
Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand: governor of the Spanish Netherlands
THE FLEMINGS
Justus Lipsius: scholar and mentor of Philip Rubens
Jean Richardot: statesman and friend of the Rubens family
Otto van Veen (Vaenius): painter and teacher of Rubens
Nicolaas Rockox: Antwerp burgomeester and friend of Rubens
Jan van den Wouvere (Woverius): statesman and friend of Rubens
Jan Caspar Gevaerts (Gevartius): humanist and friend of Rubens
Duke of Aarschot: nationalist aristocrat and statesman
THE DUTCH
William the Silent of Nassau, Prince of Orange (William of Orange): stadtholder, leader of Dutch revolt
Anna of Saxony: wife of William of Orange, paramour of Jan Rubens
Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange: stadtholder; son of William and Anna
Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange: stadtholder; son of William and Louise de Coligny
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt: statesman
Pieter van Veen: lawyer; brother of Otto van Veen
THE FRENCH
Marie de’ Medici: Queen Mother of France
Cardinal Richelieu: chief minister
Louis XIII: king of France; first son of Marie
Gaston, Duke of Orléans: second son of Marie
Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc: humanist and friend of Rubens
Palméde Fabri, sieur de Valavez: brother of Peiresc and friend of Rubens
Pierre Dupuy: friend of Rubens; brother of Jacques
Jacques Dupuy: friend of Rubens; brother of Pierre
THE ITALIANS
Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua: patron of Rubens
Annibale Chieppio: Mantuan secretary of state
Annibale Iberti: Mantuan ambassador to Spain
Ferdinand I de’ Medici: Grand Duke of Tuscany
THE ENGLISH
James I: king of England
Charles I: king of England; son of James I
Henrietta Maria: queen of England; daughter of Marie de’ Medici
George Villi
ers, Duke of Buckingham: favorite of James I and Charles I
Balthasar Gerbier: agent for Buckingham and England
Dudley Carleton, Lord Dorchester: diplomat and art collector
Francis Cottington: secretary of state and ambassador to Spain
Richard Weston, First Earl of Portland: lord treasurer
CHRONOLOGY
1548 Augsburg Transaction grants autonomy to the Low Countries, but they are still subject to the Holy Roman Emperor.
1556 Abdication of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Habsburg Empire cleaved in two, with Ferdinand II ruler of Austrian branch and Philip II sovereign of Spain and its possessions, including the Low Countries.
1559 Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis halts warring between Spain, France, and England.
1561 Marriage of Jan Rubens and Maria Pypelinckx.
1566 William of Orange leads “Beggar” movement against Spanish rule.
Iconoclasm sweeps across the Low Countries.
1567 Duke of Alva arrives to restore order in the Low Countries via reign of terror.
1568 The Rubens family flees Alva’s terror for Cologne.
1571 Jan Rubens arrested for extramarital affair with wife of William of Orange.
1572 France, England, and “Beggar” forces unite to oust Spain from the Low Countries.
1573 Jan Rubens paroled.
Alva relieved of command.
1574 Birth of Philip Rubens.
1576 Antwerp sacked during “Spanish Fury.” Antwerp falls under control of William.
1577 Birth of Peter Paul Rubens at Siegen, Germany, on June 28.
1579 Dutch provinces renounce Spanish authority with Union of Utrecht.
Flemish provinces pledge loyalty to Spain with Treaty of Arras.
1582 Alessandro Farnese leads Spanish reconquest of the Low Countries.
1584 William of Orange assassinated. His son Maurice takes Dutch command.
1585 Farnese recaptures Antwerp. Protestants forced out.
1587 Death of Jan Rubens.
1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada.
1589 Rubens family returns to Antwerp.
1596 Archduke Albert becomes governor of the Spanish Netherlands.
1598 Philip II dies. Philip III assumes Spanish throne. Infanta Isabella marries Archduke Albert; they become co-sovereigns of the Spanish Netherlands.
1600 Rubens, a member of the painters’ guild, travels to Italy and joins the court of the Duke of Mantua.
1603 Rubens departs on embassy to Spain for the Duke of Mantua.
1604 Rubens returns to Italy.
Spain and England sign peace treaty.
Ambrogio Spinola, Spanish military commander, captures Ostend.
1608 Rubens returns to Antwerp from Rome.
1609 Signature of the Twelve Years’ Truce between Spain and the United Provinces.
Rubens commemorates truce with Adoration of the Magi for the Antwerp town hall.
Rubens marries Isabella Brant, becomes court painter to the archdukes Albert and Isabella.
1610 Rubens purchases property on the Wapper in Antwerp.
1611 Death of Philip Rubens.
Rubens works on Antwerp altarpieces.
1618 “Defenestration of Prague” marks beginning of Thirty Years’ War.
Duke of Lerma (Spain) and Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (Holland) fall from power.
Rubens acquires antiquities collection from Dudley Carleton.
1619 Initiation of Rubens-Peiresc correspondence.
1621 Twelve Years’ Truce ends. Hostilities between Spain and Holland resume.
Death of Philip III. Philip IV assumes Spanish throne. Death of Archduke Albert. Isabella reduced in status to governor.
Spinola fails to take Bergen op Zoom.
Palatinate occupied by Catholic powers. Frederick V, Elector Palatine, exiled.
Rubens offers services for the Banqueting House in London.
1622 Rubens to Paris to meet Marie de’ Medici.
Rubens begins work as a covert operative.
Rubens attacked by disgruntled employee.
1623 Failure of the Spanish match in Madrid.
Rubens formally enters diplomatic service; conducts secret talks through his cousin Jan Brant.
Death of Clara Serena Rubens, daughter of Rubens.
1624 Treaty of Compiègne; France allies with the Dutch. Rubens ennobled by Spain.
1625 Rubens to Paris for installation of the Medici cycle. Rubens meets Buckingham in Paris. Agrees to sell duke his antiquities.
Spinola takes Breda.
Buckingham launches failed attack at Cádiz.
Death of Maurice, Prince of Orange. Succeeded by his brother Frederick Henry.
1626 Spain and France form secret alliance.
Work commences on Fossa Mariana canal project. Death of Isabella Rubens.
Rubens completes sale of collection to Buckingham in Paris, opens diplomatic talks with Gerbier on his own authority.
1627 Dutch raid port of Bahia, in Spanish-controlled Brazil.
Buckingham launches failed attack at Île de Ré.
Death of Vincenzo II, Duke of Mantua; crisis of succession follows.
Rubens travels through Holland to secretly negotiate peace terms with England.
1628 Rubens travels to Spain to promote Anglo-Spanish alliance.
Buckingham assassinated.
Dutch capture Spanish treasure fleet at Bay of Matanzas.
French and Huguenots sign truce at La Rochelle.
1629 Spain capitulates to French terms over Mantuan affair with Treaty of Susa.
Dutch commence siege of ’s Hertogenbosch.
Charles I initiates “Personal Rule.”
France and England agree to armistice.
Rubens named privy councillor by Philip, travels to London to negotiate Anglo-Spanish alliance.
1630 Signature of Anglo-Spanish accord.
Rubens ennobled by Charles I, returns to Antwerp.
Rubens marries Helena Fourment.
1631 Rubens made caballero by Spain.
Marie de’ Medici flees to Flanders.
Rubens travels to The Hague to negotiate peace with the Dutch.
1632 Henri de Bergh defects to Dutch.
Rubens travels to Maastricht to negotiate peace with the Dutch.
Flemish aristocrats open talks with the Dutch.
1633 Rubens turns over papers to Aarschot. Death of the infanta Isabella.
1634 Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand becomes governor of the southern Netherlands.
1635 Antwerp celebrates arrival of Ferdinand.
France and Dutch begin two-front attack on Flanders.
Rubens’s mission to Holland collapses before it begins.
Rubens purchases Castle Steen.
1638 Ferdinand wins Battle of Kallo.
1640 Death of Rubens at his Antwerp home on May 30.
1648 Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück establish the Peace of Westphalia, ending Eighty and Thirty Years’ wars.
NOTES
PROLOGUE
modeled himself: On Rembrandt’s Rubens obsession, see Simon Schama’s indispensable Rembrandt’s Eyes, 26–27.
but not the reverse: In the twentieth century, many notable writers and entertainers engaged in spycraft, including Noël Coward, Roald Dahl, Ian Fleming, and Hedy Lamarr. Most became involved with covert activity during World War II.
politique: On the use of this term, see Schama, Rembrandt’s Eyes, 43.
CHAPTER I: A NOVICE WITHOUT EXPERIENCE
“You are going”: Niccolò Machiavelli to Raffaello Girolami, Oct. 28, 1522. Reprinted in Machiavelli, Chief Works, 116.
not one motivated by pure altruism: The duke was also interested in the recently vacated admiralty of the Spanish fleet, a title for which he was theoretically eligible as a fellow Habsburg ruler and loyal Spanish client. On Vincenzo’s motivations, see Jaffé, Rubens and Italy, 67–73.
centerpiece of the gift: On the full contents of Vince
nzo’s gift, see ibid., 67.
copies of works by Raphael: Most were made from collections in Rome, and executed by a minor Italian painter, Pietro Facchetti. Rooses, Rubens, 70.
inept soldiering: On Vincenzo’s military career, see Chambers and Martineau, Splendours of the Gonzaga, 224.
selected for this mission: On Vincenzo’s selection of Rubens, and on the mission to Spain generally, see Jaffé, Rubens and Italy, 67–73; Rooses, Rubens, 53–106; and Schama, Rembrandt’s Eyes, 102–14. That the advent of the artist-diplomat may have been prompted by the need to have an artist capable of restoration work was suggested to me by Elizabeth Honig.
comfortable in the society of court: According to Roger de Piles, Rubens “was born with all the advantages that make a great painter and a great politician.” See “Life of Rubens” (1681), in Baglione, Sandrart, and de Piles, Lives of Rubens, 77–78.
“it be not absolutely necessary”: Wicquefort, Embassador and His Functions, 49. Wicquefort and Rubens may well have crossed paths.
“he learned with such facility”: Philip Rubens, “Latin Life of Peter Paul Rubens,” 37. On the Verdonck education, see Schama, Rembrandt’s Eyes, 76.
“There always glimmered”: Joachim von Sandrart, excerpt from Teutsche Academie, in Baglione, Sandrart, and de Piles, Lives of Rubens, 35.
On Rubens and Stimmer, see Schama, Rembrandt’s Eyes, 77–79.
“no plague”: Rooses, Rubens, 53. It is unclear whether del Monte accompanied Rubens on the mission to Spain for Vincenzo.
Rubens to Rome: On Rubens and Montalto, see Jaffé, Rubens and Italy, 9–11.
knew just what he was doing: Vincenzo was not always the most studied aesthete. He said of Rubens, “He is not bad at painting portraits.” Chambers and Martineau, Splendours of the Gonzaga, 214.
“I stood there like a dunce”: Rubens to Chieppio, March 29, 1603, in Magurn, Letters of Peter Paul Rubens (henceforth LPPR), 27. The events of Rubens’s trip to Spain are largely reconstructed through his voluminous correspondence.
