64. Epictetus, Discourses, 11.23.4; 111.22.23-24, 69-70; 1.24.3-10.
65. Monumenti, Musei e Galeris Pontificie, Citta del Vaticano, and another in Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome, 67.1593. For photographic reproductions see A. A. Barrett, Livia: First Lady of Imperial Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), p. 112.
66. For epigraphic evidence see D. Fishwick, The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire, vol. 3.2 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002), pp. 96-98 153-54, 185, 206, 209, 247, and 306-7.
67. Juvenal, Satires, VI.617.
68. Kent, Corinth, VIII, 3.199. The date is uncertain but it was either late first century, i.e., after 73 A.D. or the middle of the following century. It was in Latin, the language of the firstcentury official inscription in Corinth. Greek was used in the second century.
69. W. Cotter, "The Collegia and the Roman Law: State Restrictions on Voluntary Associations, 64 BCE-200 CE," in J. S. Kloppenborg and S. G. Wilson, eds., Voluntary Associations in the Graeco-Roman World (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 78. In that very legislation where he restricted the meetings of associations to once a month he specifically exempted the Jews who were allowed to meet on a weekly basis to observe the sabbath. O. F. Robinson, The Criminal Law of Ancient Rome (London: Duckworth, 1995), p. 8o.
70. B. Levick, "Tiberius and the Law: The Development of maiestas," in Tiberius, the Politician (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976), ch. u.
71. Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, 186b-i87a.
72. Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, 188c.
73. Plutarch, "Precepts of Statecraft;' 8o8E.
74. Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism," 111.245.
77. Theocles, Lyricus, 5.40.
75. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 4.24,11-37,14.2, 11.6.
76. Plato, Phaedrus, 274b.
78. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research, p. 687.
79. The Digest, 16.1.2 (Ulpian); see also 16.1.1 (Paulus) on the decree and the discussion in J. E. Grubbs, Women in the Law in the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook on Marriage, Divorce and Widowhood (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 55.
80. For the wide-ranging issues covered by the term, see A. Watson, The Law of Obligations in the Later Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon, 1965); R. Zimmerman, The Law of Obligations: Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition (Cape Town: Juta, 199o).
8i. F. Cairns, "The Meaning of the Veil in Ancient Greek Culture," in L. Llewellyn-Jones, ed., Women's Dress in the Ancient Greek World, p. 81.
82. Matt. 8:24, 10:26, Luke 8:16, 23:30, 1 Pet. 4:8 and James 5:20.
85. Dio Cassius, Roman History, 60.13.3; and Strabo, Geography, 9.2.4.
83. Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists, 564c, KaTaX67rTEl ToUS be OaXpous.
84. Diodorus Siculus, History, 19.io6.4.
86. Herodotus, The Persian Wars, 6.67.
87. Plutarch, "How to profit from one's enemies," 73C, 8oB; and "The control of anger;" 462B.
88. Musonius Rufus, "Self-control;" 11. 17-25.
89. Liddell & Scott in their entry on Kara suggest that this is a reason for prefacing a main verb with it.
90. A. T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research, pp. 606-7.
91. D. Gill, "The Importance of Roman Portraiture for Head-coverings in i Corinthians 11:2-16;" TynB 41.2 (1990): 260.
92. See my "The Problem with `church' for the Early Church," in D. Peterson and J. Pryor, eds., In the Fullness of Time: Biblical Studies in Honour of Archbishop Robinson (Sydney: Lancer, 1992), ch. 13.
93. See my After Paul Left Corinth, p. 128.
1. C. Ando, "Images of Emperor and Empire," in Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), ch. 7, cit. P. 233.
2. See R. A. Kearsley and T. V. Evans, Greeks and Romans in Imperial Asia: Mixed Language Inscriptions and Linguistic Evidence for Cultural Interaction until the End of A.D. III (Bonn: Habelt, 2001), who record the Greek and Latin bilingualism of Asia Minor.
3. For an exhaustive survey see D. Doriani, "A History of the Interpretation of i Timothy 2," in A. Kostenberger, T. R. Schreiner and H. S. Baldwin, eds., Women in the Church: A Fresh Analysis of i Timothy 2:9-15 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995), Appendix 1, pp. 213-67.
4. Contra S. M. Baugh, "A Foreign World: Ephesus in the First Century," in A. Kostenberger, T. R. Schreiner and H. S. Baldwin, eds., Women in the Church, pp. 13-52, who argues against attempts to establish a Sitz im Leben for the passage.
5. Seneca, Ad Helviam, 16.3-5.
6. P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988), pp. 156-66, cit. 165.
7. Ovid, Tristia, 2.212.
8. For the significance of the removal of the marriage veil as in i Cor. 11:2-16 see chapter 5, pp. 81-83.
9. T. A. J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), PP. 154-70.
12. Horace, Satires, 1.1.62-63.
13. Diodorus, XII.21.1.
14. Epigrammata Graeca, 61o.
15. Epigrammata Graeca, 497a, 11. 7-8.
io. A. T. Croom, Roman Clothing and Fashion (Stroud: Tempus, 2000), pp. 92-93.
n. Martial, Epigrams, 2.39.
20. The term was not restricted to women. Plutarch, "On Listening to Lectures;" Moralia, 37D, cites with approval Herodotus, 1.8, who speaks of the loss of innocence that occurs when young men lay aside their modesty (ai(56(0 i) on assuming the toga virilis.
i8. Plutarch, "Advice to the Bride and Groom," 139C.
19. Seneca, Ad Helviam,16.5.
i6. Epictetus, The Encheiridion, x1.
17. Epictetus, Discourse, 2.10.15.
21. V. Lambropoulou, "Some Pythagorean Female Virtues," in R. Hawley and B. Levick, eds., Women in Antiquity: New Assessments (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 129. Phintys, "On Woman's Moderation," in Thesleff, Texts, 151ff. See also S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage: lusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian (Oxford: Clarendon, i99i), p. 196.
22. R. A. Kearsley, "Women in Public Life in the Roman East: lunia Theodora, Claudia Metrodora and Phoebe, Benefactress of Paul," TynB 50.2 (1999), p. 197. Seep. 35 for a discussion of this virtue on the statue of Regilla.
23. See p. 35.
24. I. H. Marshall, The Pastoral Epistles (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1999), pp. 448-49.
25. On the cardinal virtues see pp. 61-62.
26. Valerius Maximus, Memorable Doings and Sayings, I1.9.5.
27. On consumption and indulgence and the laws seeking to restrain them see A. Dalby, Empire of Pleasures: Luxury and Indulgence in the Roman World (London: Routledge, 2000); and on the laws see D. Daube, Roman Law: Linguistics, Social and Philosophical Aspects (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1969), pp. 124-27; P. Wyetzner, "Sulla's Law on Prices and the Roman Definition of Luxury," in J.-J. Aubert and B. Sirks, eds., Speculum luris: Roman Law as a Reflection of Social and Economic Life in Antiquity (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002), pp. 15-33.
28. Plutarch, "Advice to Bride and Groom," 139 D-E.
29. Memorable Doings and Sayings, 2.1.5.
30. Memorable Doings and Sayings, 37.7.9.
31. See Groom, Roman Clothing and Fashion, p. 99, for a variety of simple first-century styles.
32. Juvenal, 6.617.
35. Croom, Roman Clothing and Fashion, p. 98.
36. Juvenal, Satires, 6.501-3.
37. Juvenal, Satires, 6.458-59.
33. P. Scherrer, Ephesus: The New Guide (Turkey: Austrian Archaeological Institute, 2000), p. 199, fig. 2 of the statue in the Ephesus museum.
34• S. E. Wood, Imperial Women: A Study in Public Images, 40 B.C.-A.D. 69 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999), p. i.
38. Croom, Roman Clothing and Fashion, p. 115.
39. Petronius, Satyricon, 67. C. Edwards, The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 203, notes, `The freedman Trimalchio's dinner might be lavish but his refined guests still despised his ignorance of proper etiquette.'
40. Juvenal, Satires, 2.61; S. H. Braund, "A Woman's Voice - Laronia's Role in Juvenal Satire 2," in R. Hawley and B. Levick, eds., Women in Antiquity: New Assessments (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 211.
43. A. Dalby, "Levels of Concealment: The Dress of the Hetairai and Pornai in Greek texts;" in L. Llewellyn-Jones, ed., Women's Dress in the Ancient Greek World (London and Swansea: Duckworth and University Press of Wales, 2002), p. 115.
41. Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and Sayings, 4.4.
42. Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, 521B.
48. Pliny the Younger, Letters, 5.16 (A.D. 105/6).
49• J. E. Grubbs, Women in the Law in the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook on Marriage, Divorce and Widowhood (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 98-ioo.
50. D. Cherry, "Gifts between Husband and Wife: The Social Origins of Roman Law," in Aubert and Sirks, Speculum luris: Roman Law as a Reflection of Social and Economic Life in Antiquity, pp. 34-45, cit. P. 44.
44. Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 50.2.
45. Martial, Epigrams, 8.81.
46. Pliny, Nat. Hist., 11.50.136; see also 37.6.17, 9.56.114, 9.56.112.
47. Groom, Roman Clothing and Fashion, p. 116.
51. Plutarch, "Consolation to His Wife," 6o9C.
52. P.Haun. 13, 11. 6-29, which is the Koine Greek rendering of the Stadele edition of the Classical Greek text, III. For the full citation see pp. 72-73.
53• Clement of Alexandria, Educator, 2.10.105.
54. Grubbs, Women in the Law the Roman Empire, p. 48.
56. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law, p. 154.
57. See pp. 91-94.
55• J• A. Crook, Law and Life of Rome, 90 B.C.-A.D. 212 (New York: Cornell University Press, 1967), pp. 7-8.
58. See pp. 125 and 83.
59. For a detailed history of the term Tsxvoyovia and the interpretation of the text see A. Kostenberger, "Ascertaining Women's God-ordained Roles: An Interpretation of i Timothy 2:15;" BBR 7 (1997): 107-144, reprinted in his Studies in john and Gender: A Decade of Scholarship (New York: Peter Lang, 2001), ch. 14.
6o. P.Haun. 13, 1. 44, `bring up children' (Tptcpslv).
61. Epitome of Stoic Ethics, ub. The word ouyxaTa(3aivsrv is a cognate of (3aivw that has sexual connotations; see J. N. Adams, The Latin Sexual Vocabulary (London: Duckworth, 1982), p. 205, contra A. J. Pomeroy, Arius Didymus: Epitome of Stoic Ethics, Texts and Translations, Graeco-Roman Series 14 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999), p. 121, where he suggests the term is pejorative and translates it as `stoops to marriage, citing in support M. Schofield, The Stoic Ideal of the City (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 126, n. 14.
64. The use of contraception is well documented; see K. Hopkins, "Contraception in the Roman Empire," Comparative Studies in Society and History 8 (1965): 124-51.
65. Ovid, Amores, 2.14.5-9, 27-28 35-38.
66. L. P. Wilkinson, "Population and Family Planning;" in Classical Attitudes to Modern Issues (London: William Kimber, 1979), ch. 1.
62. Kostenberger, Studies in John and Gender, esp. P. 307, cit. P. 320.
63. Liddell & Scott.
67. Soranus, Gynaecology, 1.19.60. See also Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, 12.1.8, on abortion.
68. Juvenal, Satires, 6.593ff; c£ Tacitus, Germania, 19.5.
69. Seneca, Ad Helviam, 16.3-5.
70. Gellius, Attic Nights, 12.1.
71. E. A. Hemelrijk, Matrona Docta: Educated Women in the Roman Elite from Correlia to Julia Domna (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 92-96. She conjectures that this may be related to there being more sources in this period compared with others, although compared with other centuries there are fewer. She does note a dropping away in the third century.
72. Winter, Philo and Paul among the Sophists, pp. 25-26.
73. Lucian, "On Salaried Posts in Great Houses" and his "Apology".
74. See the phenomenon and content of discussions in the fifteen books of the secondcentury Athenaeus, in his The Deipnosophists.
77. S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage: lusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian (Oxford: Clarendon, 1991), p. 261. Her conclusion challenges the assumption of New Testament scholars that submission was the cultural norm in the period.
75. Lucian, "On Salaried Posts in Great Houses;" 36.
76. Hemelrijk, Matrona Docta: Educated Women, p. 37.
78. BGU, 96,1.7.
81. Juvenal, Satires, 6.448-56.
79. Lutz, p. 42, 11. 24-25. For full citation see p. 66.
8o. Musonius Rufus, in Lutz, p. 42, 11. 54-58.
84. Hemelrijk, Matrona Docta: Educated Women, p. 28.
85. Valerius Maximus, Memorable Doings and Sayings, II1.8.6.
82. Hemelrijk, Matrona Docta: Educated Women, p. 88.
83. See my After Paul Left Corinth, pp. 153-57.
86. Philostratus, The Lives of the Sophists.
87. In the conclusion of her chapter "The Education of Upper-Class Women: Opportunities," Hemelrijk rightly draws attention to the scattered nature of her sources and the fact that they were written by men; Matrona Docta: Educated Women, ch. 2, pp. 57-58.
90. Cicero, Brutus, 210; Quintilian,1.r.4-5, Vitruvius, Architecture, 6, Preface 4; and Martial, Epigrams, 9.73.7.
91. Hemelrijk, Matrona Docta: Educated Women, pp. 68-71.
88. S. Dixon, The Roman Mother, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, i99o), pp. 1-7.
89. Tacitus, Dialogue, 28, and Agriculture, 4.2-3.
92. F. W. Danker and W. Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), p. 15o. Liddell & Scott, 9th ed. (1996), p. 275.
93• G. W. Knight III, "AYOENTE1 in Reference to Women in i Timothy 2.12," NTS 30.1 (1984): 143-57; and L. Wilshire, "The TLG computer and further references to AYOENTES2 in 1 Timothy 2:12;" NTS 34 (1988): 120-34; and a further discussion by H. S. Baldwin, "a'Osv rEw in Ancient Greek Literature," in A. Kostenberger, T. R. Schreiner and H. S. Baldwin, eds., Women in the Church: A Fresh Analysis of 1 Timothy 2:9-15 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995), pp. 269-305.
94. For example, he provides xaropyav as a synonym for the not widely attested Mspaxp6CEiv and notes its importance for understanding the latter's use in i Cor. 7:36; see my After Paul Left Corinth: The Influence of Secular Ethics and Social Change, p. 248.
95• Wilshire, "The TLG computer and further references to AY0ENTES2 in 1 Timothy 2:12," p. 125, may have misunderstood the importance of Hesychius, for he comments, `He gives no reason for his listing although it may reflect his perception of the common usage of his day.'
96. Hesychius, Lex. 63, 64.
97. A good example of the use of auro8uu5 can be found in Thucydides, 5.18.2, on the treaty between the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians where it was agreed that the people of Delphi would not only have an independent tax system but also their own courts of justice (auro8ixous).
ioo. Plutarch, Antonius, 10.3.
98. Corpus Scriptorium Historiae Byzantinae, ed. I. Bekker (Bonn, 1836), p. 270.
99. Phrynichus, Ecloga, 96.
101. Diodorus Siculus, 1.27.2.
102. Marshall, The Pastoral Epistles, p. 457.
103. E. Greene, The Erotics of Domination: Male Desire and the Mistress in Latin Love Poetry (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1998).
104. Clement, Paidagogos 3.2.4.2-5.4.
105. In that passage there is no specific reference to rich women but in 6:9 to `the men'. It is suggested that this passage is directed towards Christian workers and the temptation to become financially acquisitive, for 6:17-19 provides instructions to the rich Christians.
1o8. E. A. Judge, "A Woman's Behaviour," New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity 6 (1992): 19.
109. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law, p. 154.
no. A. T. Croom, Roman
Clothing and Fashion, p. 75. Italics are hers. The Digest 47.10.15.15. For the citation see p. 83.
1o6. Contra Marshall, The Pastoral Epistles, p. 449.
107. Marshall, The Pastoral Epistles, pp. 450-51.
Ill. O. F. Robinson, The Criminal Law of Ancient Rome (London: Duckworth, 1995), p. 80, and O. M. Van Nijf, The Civic World of Professional Associations in the Roman East (Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1997).
112. P. Richardson, `Early Synagogues as collegia in the Diaspora and Palestine;' in J. S. Kloppenborg and S. G. Wilson, eds., Voluntary Associations in the Graeco-Roman World (London: Routledge, 1996), ch. 6, argued that case.
113. See the evidence cited in my "Roman Law and Society in Romans 12-15;" in P. Oakes, ed., Rome in the Bible and the Early Church (Carlisle and Grand Rapids: Paternoster and Baker, 2002), pp. 69-75.
114. A similar concern was expressed in Titus 2:5 `that the Word of God be not discredited'.
i. T. A. J. McGinn, "Widows, Orphans, and Social History," Journal of Roman Archaeology 12 (1999): 617-632, cit. 632. J.-U. Krause Witwen and Waisen im Romischen Reich: I. Verwitwung and Wiederverheiratung; II. Witschaftliche and die Gesellschaftlicher Stellung von Witwen; III. Rechtlicher and Soziale Stellung von Waisen; IV. Witwen and Waisen im fruhen Christentum, Habes 16-i9 (Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 1994-95).
2. See P. Walcot, "On Widows and Their Reputation in Antiquity," Symbolae Osloenses lxvi (1991): 5-26, for a very broad ranging discussion of the fear of the sexually experienced and the sexually voracious widow. See also the primary evidence in this chapter.
3. "Stuprum was committed by a woman who had never married or a widow; the Greeks called it corruption (cooper), seduction;" Papian, The Digest, 48.5.6.1. The term adulterium was reserved only for married women in Roman law; see T. A. J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 151.
4. McGinn, "Widows, Orphans, and Social History," p. 622.
6. Krause, Witwen and Waisen im Romischen Reich, I, p. 73.
7. McGinn, "Widows, Orphans, and Social History," p. 618, argues that Krause fails to take into account the differences between the privileged classes and others, but agrees that there were a large number of widows.
Roman Wives, Roman Widows Page 27
