In 2013 alone, 19 paranormal series premiered on U.S. television, 23 in 2014, and 17 in 2015.10 These high numbers mark a shift in the 2000s to high-volume, low-cost paranormal TV. Producers correctly banked on the idea that superficial and positive narratives of the paranormal would be more popular than complex and skeptical views. A good skeptical approach has rarely been attempted so we cannot compare if such a view would or wouldn’t resonate with audiences. A typical pattern for production was this: once a key show was successful, spinoffs (or copycats) followed in order to carry the core audience. Ghost Hunters was the most popular of this genre. Over two million viewers (Seidman 2009) tuned in per episode to make this SyFy channel’s most successful series. It spun off two other Ghost Hunter shows—Ghost Hunters International and Ghost Hunters Academy. The majority of paranormal TV presents a core formula: heroic investigators tackle a mysterious situation. The popularity of paranormal shows suggested that a subset of America was fascinated by the topic. Fans of these shows wanted to believe in something more than what the real world offered and, as with television in general, these shows provided an escape from one’s own life. The do-it-yourself, everyman attitude encouraged audience participation, imitative actions, reactions, and behaviors. Social media and Internet forums were used effectively to build an audience and for discussion and increased promotion. As with sports teams, musical artists, or other television shows, being a staunch follower and fan of this or that paranormal show became a part of a person’s identity.
Celebrating its 10th season on television in 2014, Ghost Hunters received harsh critical review that contrasted with the great ratings. Bruno Maddox (2009) observed that Ghost Hunters represented “how easily and thoroughly any humdrum existence can be transformed” by focusing on the mysterious. He also called the show “deeply stupid” with respect to the airs of “science” that they put on. But his observation hit on a critical component of ARIGs: do-it-yourself mystery hunting can transcend the drudgery of everyday life. Thanks to reality paranormal TV, mystery hunting became a culturally acceptable novelty not seen since the days of Nancy Drew and Scooby Doo (Sagan & Page 1972). Even though the shows were not designed to educate, people followed their lead as if they were.
Ask those who sell ghost hunting equipment and they will tell you the most popular device at the moment is the one seen on the ghost show that past week.11 TV investigators are small-scale celebrities. Collectively, they are casually referred to and treated as “para-celebs” at conferences and public appearances. Once they reach the level of having their own show, their status is raised, and they acquire a fan base, but respect among their colleagues often dwindles. There is a clear sense that “selling out” for a TV show means leaving research integrity behind. Jealousy may be at play as well, as the popular para-celebrities will be paid to appear at events.12
Though some initially friendly networks for these mystery-mongering shows eventually became less welcoming and dropped series, others such as Destination America channel picked up the slack. Destination America, in 2016, seemed to be on the cusp of being all-paranormal all the time. It’s curious to note the association with America to all this weirdness and mystery. Any place you go in the U.S. appears to have some spookiness attached.
The widespread effects of these reality-type paranormal shows on paranormal belief has not been well studied. It is still unclear exactly what buttons they push in people to compel them into investigating the phenomena themselves as opposed to enjoying investigation stories as entertainment. However, television has a tremendous impact on how we perceive the world and gage reality. It can also distort reality (Toumey 1996). Sconce (2000) suggests that if we see so much relatable “life” on TV we lose verifiable reference to reality. The barrier between television portrayal of real life and actual real life dissolves. Is this a cause of ARIGs imitating media? Paranormal investigator shows such as Ghost Hunters and Finding Bigfoot are examples of hyperrealism in television. The shows are an exaggeration of reality that do not accurately depict what these people would do without the camera on them. It is a manufactured reality, an enhanced, more dramatic, condensed, and concentrated version of reality. The hazard that viewers may mistake hyperreality for reality is not just a possibility … it happens! People visit paranormal hotspots looking for their own experiences (“ostension”)—sometimes resulting in a fuming property owner. Amateurs on these shows have become role models that viewers emulate in their own real-life situations. The television depiction of “ghosts,” “hauntings,” or “Bigfoot encounters” have usurped the narrative so that what is seen on TV is now assumed to be in the environment outside of television. It’s real, they say, “I saw it on TV.” Thus, ghosts, Bigfoot, and alien abductions are defined by a fictionalized or invented TV narrative. It’s a dangerous precedent to confuse facts with fiction.
Science-themed television shows may boost the popularity of science. Or, they may boost the popularity of “sciencey” ideas as there is a disconnect between what is shown to the viewer and the actual substance and relationships present in science (Denzler 2003). Mooney and Kirschenbaum (2009) argue that television portrayal of “science” can potentially be dangerous, such as in cases of medical information provided and decisions made from non-experts. Because of the television business model of homogenization of content, we are flooded with many bad portrayals of fake reality. If we get our ideas about reality from the media, will people exposed to bad science, or dramatized, unrealistic science, eventually think science is just drama with gadgets? Does the trend of inaccurate scientific processes on television negatively affect the public’s ability to make informed judgments? Will they support policy decisions based on pseudoscience instead of those based on good data and reasonable conclusions? Good decisions can’t come from a culture deliberately misinformed about the world around them. But right now, that scenario is playing out every programming hour.
Media Contribute to Beliefs
The 1984 movie Ghostbusters gave a boost to the idea of real life ghost-hunting even though it was pure fiction (Mayer 2013) Its influence on the protocols and process of paranormal investigation is debatable (considering it was a fictional comedy) but there are sadly some who really do think Egon Spengler’s proton pack is a real device.13 The movie had key elements such as use of technology, real references to parapsychology, demonic possession, and even good old ectoplasm—combining old ideas into a modern tale. Thirty years later, the movie is iconic. When we think of hunting ghosts, we can’t help but recall the idea of the Ghostbusters revving up their proton packs with explicit instructions to not cross the streams. Parapsychologist Ciaran O’Keefe admitted that it was a huge influence on his career choice.14 Ghostbusters made paranormal investigation (mainly by men until the women were given center stage in 2016) cool (Mayer 2013).
Leary and Butler (2015) cite that the 2005 movie White Noise exponentially increased the interest in electronic communication with the dead. Ghost hunting TV shows later capitalized on this. A 1972 BBC television movie, The Stone Tape, adapted and popularized ideas suggested by some paranormal writers regarding ideas that psychic energy released from past events can be captured in physical fabric of building materials and replayed like a magnetic tape—the dominant recording media of the 1970s.
A 2006 survey cited by Clarke (2013) noted that 75% of respondents obtained whatever information they had on anomalous lights in the sky (including potential “UFOs”) from fictional TV shows and films. Thanks Steven Spielberg!
Modern paranormal content taps into these popular public sentiments perpetuating unsupported claims and misunderstanding about the role science plays in investigating them. The scientific concepts in Ghostbusters became normalized and the pretend science felt intuitive. Many beliefs are accepted because they feel intuitively right even if the supporting science is completely wrong (Blancke et al. 2016).
The popularity of pop culture paranormal is enhanced by the pleasure people feel in seeing their beliefs repre
sented for everyone to see. Belief in something is connected to one’s personality and needs in life. Belief is easy to reinforce, and hard to shake. It provides us with a sense of control and a framework for which to define our world (Belz & Fach 2015). When we see visual media that reinforce that belief, it becomes part of our worldview, even if it is fictional. Sometimes, humans respond so powerfully to fiction, it is as if it is real. Then, we may substitute that fiction and respond to it as to reality (Bartholomew 2012). Hill (A. Hill 2010) considers reality television shows about paranormal investigation to be “second-order experience.” It’s real enough to matter.
Factual or fictional, documentary or summer blockbuster, Americans absorb paranormal ideas and incorporate them into their worldview. The more paranormal themes are presented, the more commonplace and less strange they seem. Self-proclaimed experts become authorities on entities that no one has shown exist! Instead of passive consumers of the media, a more thoughtful approach would be to think and question what we are consuming, why we like it, and how it affects us. In some respects, it’s not just a TV show or movie, it’s an important part of our identity and worldview.
The Internet
For niche communities and alternative beliefs, the advent of the Internet changed everything. Increased access outside of academic and government use and the introduction of publicly available web browsers in the early to mid–90s allowed anyone to self-publish thoughts, opinions, photos, videos, discussions, and diatribes. Internet participants could exist under another identity, build their own sub-community, market themselves under their own brands, and gain attention and legitimacy with an ease like never before. It was, literally, a game-changer (Haythornthwaite & Kendell 2010).
As a great equalizer (Mims 1999) for widely variant points of view, perhaps the Internet has been too great. Internet search engines, the main gateway to information of personal interest, give equal weight to scientifically unequal ideas. Popularity is not dependent upon veracity. It seems self-evident that reasonable, moderate, and nuanced explanations are ignored as boring. They are no match for wild and fantastic stories and claims. UFO sightings and associated conspiracy ideas roared back into life again thanks to the Internet where alternative figures like Alex Jones, America’s most popular conspiracy theorist, became media machines.15 Coast to Coast AM, a late-night radio show about fringe topics, became a popular interview forum for paranormal and conspiracy figures. This audience readily transitioned to the Internet where countless paranormal-themed discussion forums allow anyone to post their ideas and anyone else to consider or challenge it. To be a self-styled “expert” in the fringe topics is a strange parallel to being considered a scientific expert. Paranormal media figures compare or contrast themselves to scientists and, increasingly, media producers and providers seek out these self-styled experts instead of academic researchers.
Mass democratization of publishing removed gatekeepers and allowed anyone, not just professionals, to provide their contributions worldwide. Traditional forms of publication required editors and standards and, prior to the Internet, marginal ideas had a difficult time getting exposure (Shirky 2008). But now, it’s easy to find and associate with those who share interests and to deliberately exclude opposing perspectives. Increased media attention to these subjects especially across the Internet has resulted in increased interest in the paranormal (Bader et al. 2010; Molle & Bader 2013; Gibson et al. 2009).
Also widely available now at little to no cost are tons of old records, databases, newspapers, and collected accounts. Gone are the days of getting motion sickness and headaches from scrolling through tiny print on a microfiche screen display. Social media tools have enabled a spread of information unprecedented in human history, and software and applications let us connect immediately with individuals and groups of people around the world in real time. Social networks were a boon to fringe subjects. MySpace, which established a network of users with real-time announcements and heavy use of images and sound, was the first place for ARIGs to set up their own webpage without the need for advanced computer knowledge. MySpace was already being supplanted by Facebook at the time I examined ARIG websites, but those that still existed typically contained grinning and flaming skulls, spooky music, crude animation graphics, and auto-play videos. The sites Meetup and Facebook broadcasted the time and location of local get-togethers that drew people to events.
People naturally wish to share their stories and seek out those with similar experiences who will reinforce their own beliefs and conclusions. The Internet has made this process a smooth pathway, coalescing believers in these X-Files subjects into online communities that function almost like a family. No idea is too “out there,” and is nurtured through mutual support and encouragement. Just creation and sharing of an idea gives it life. It’s made real by reinforcement and accepted because of the increased and repetitive exposure in our culture. The classic example would be the story of the Slenderman—a fictional evil creature from a creative forum that became so popular that people claim to see it and consider it real.16
Familiarity breeds acceptance. Continued exposure to these unique views makes them sound less weird the next time we hear them. Little steps from strange to stranger can take us very far away from where we started. The stigma of belief in the subjects of UFOs, Bigfoot, monsters, ghosts, and anomalies became normalized with assistance of the Internet. The paranormal feels familiar and seemingly plausible because we’ve heard so many stories that we assume there must be something to them.
The next three chapters provide a history of each ARIG focus area showing changing attitudes of the scientific community and the public through time.
3
Ghost Hunters and Paranormal Investigators
Paranormal research didn’t begin with the Ghost Hunters TAPS crew in the 1990s. Ghost hunting has a long history as hobby, entertainment, and serious research topic. Ghosts are a way to explore the question of life after death. The early researchers into mediumship or spirit communication were considered “ghost hunters.”
The first official media circus surrounding a haunted house was the Cock Lane ghost of 1762 London. Curious locals and visitors gathered at the apartment hoping to participate in a séance with “Scratching Fanny,” the ghost that communicated through knocks that she was murdered. A committee was organized to investigate the ghost, eventually concluding it was a fraud (Clarke 2012).
Ghost hunting “flash mobs” were popular during this time too as several hundred people would gather around a building claimed to have spirit activity and watch for any hint of movement inside. These mobs of thrill-seeking citizens were often poor and working class looking for some excitement (Clarke 2012).
The oldest group with an interest in ghostly activity is The Ghost Club. It still exists today. Formed in 1862 in the U.K. to investigate claims of ghosts and hauntings, members included such socially esteemed people as academics from Cambridge University, clergy, and even author Charles Dickens. After a decline, it resurrected in 1882 as a secretive social club with occult leanings, with many notable members of the literary and scholarly community.
Psychical Research
Also in 1882 London, the Society of Psychical Research (SPR) convened for the first time with some overlap of members with The Ghost Club. SPR’s goal was to bring scientific techniques and attitudes to psychical or spiritual claims. It was the first organization to scientifically and systematically study the reported phenomena of hauntings, poltergeists, and spirit activity. The SPR was made up of professional men and scientists, whereas The Ghost Club was more casual and advanced a belief in psychic power. The aim of the SPR was to find proof of life after death by studying reports of apparitions, haunted houses, and thought transference (telepathy), and to investigate self-proclaimed psychic mediums. Conventional science was not examining these remarkable phenomena at the time so the SPR took up that task. These scientists applied the scientific knowledge of that time regarding electricity, magnetism, and
photography which was the first major application of apparatus to this subject area, and it would grow. The early SPR sentiment was that science would reveal much about the unseen world and possibly the keys to communicating with the dead. Belief in ghosts was close to being respectable as it appeared science was about to reveal their existence (Clarke 2012). A related organization was eventually established in the U.S.—the American Society of Psychical Research (ASPR), founded in 1885. The investigators were also trained scientists and their findings were published in their journals. Many prominent members of these organizations concluded that there was ample proof of life after death already (Lyons 2009). Opponents disagreed on the quality of evidence and questioned the susceptibility of these researchers to be fooled by fakers. There is a rich history of individuals, experiments and investigations that occurred during this vibrant time of psychic exploration. Legitimate scientific exchange took place in the pages of esteemed journals like Science and Nature. The hope was that scientific standards could elevate the field of study to accepted science. While many scientists still thought it was nonsense, many learned men (there were very few women involved except as mediums) were convinced that proof of communication with the dead was plausible and worth pursuing. However, many investigations uncovered fraudulent mediums or hoaxing. Disagreements erupted between SPR members about how strictly to apply scientific constraints in investigations or to allow looseness that may be more conducive to manifestation of the effect (and allow for ease of hoaxing) (Blum 2006).
Repeated exposure of frauds, also highlighted in the media by famous debunking magician Harry Houdini, further tarnished the already questionable reputation of the field of psychical research.
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