ONE “Only a Valet”
It began with a letter written to an obscure jailer in the distant fortress of Pignerol at the end of July 1669. Saint-Mars, the governor of the donjon of Pignerol, was alerted to the imminent arrival of a new prisoner. It was of the utmost importance to the king’s service, he was told, that the man whose name was given as “Eustache d’Auger” should be kept under conditions of the strictest security. Particularly, it was imperative that this man should be unable to communicate with anyone by any means whatsoever.
Saint-Mars was being warned in advance of the arrival of his prisoner so that he could prepare a secure cell. He was ordered to take care that the windows of this cell were “so placed that they could not be approached by anyone,” and that it was equipped with “enough doors closing one upon the other,” that Saint-Mars’s sentries would not be able to hear anything. Saint-Mars himself was once a day to take to this “wretch,” whatever he might need for the day, and he was not under any pretext to listen to what the prisoner might say to him, but instead to threaten to kill him if he tried to speak of anything except his basic needs. The sieur Poupart, commissioner for war at Pignerol, was on standby waiting to begin work on the secure cell, while Saint-Mars was authorized to obtain some furniture for the prisoner, bearing in mind that “since he is only a valet,” this should not cost very much.1
The letter to Saint-Mars, which was dated July 19, 1669, was written on the orders of Louis XIV by François-Michel Le Tellier, marquis de Louvois. Still only twenty-eight years old, Louvois was destined to play a vital role in the story of the Man in the Iron Mask. Serving as Louis XIV’s minister of state for war, Louvois had been educated at the Jesuit Collège de Clermont in the rue Saint-Jacques in Paris. Upon leaving the school in 1657, he was instructed in French law by his father, the formidable secretary of state for war, Michel Le Tellier. Louvois then served at the Parlement of Metz as counselor before obtaining the survivance of his father’s office.2 He worked in the ministry for war for a time, learning the job under his father’s guidance, but Le Tellier would hand over increasing amounts of ministry work to his son and, upon being made chancellor in 1677, he would leave Louvois in sole charge. As the minister for war, the garrison and prison of Pignerol came under Louvois’s jurisdiction, as did any prisoner who might be held there.
Seven days after Louvois’s letter to Saint-Mars had been dispatched, Louis issued a lettre de cachet, or royal warrant under the king’s seal and signed by his own hand. Dated July 26, this document, which was countersigned by Michel Le Tellier, was addressed to Captain Alexandre de Vauroy, sergeant-major of the town and citadel of Dunkirk. “Captain Vauroy,” it began, “being dissatisfied with the behavior of the man named Eustache Dauger, and wanting to make sure of his person, I am writing this letter to tell you that, as soon as you see him, you are to seize and arrest him and conduct him yourself in all security to the citadel of Pignerol.” On the same day, Louis wrote to Saint-Mars at Pignerol to advise him that Vauroy was bringing the prisoner he had been told to expect:
Captain de Saint-Mars,
Sending to my citadel of Pignerol under the escort of Captain de Vauroy, major of my city and citadel of Dunkerque, the man named Eustache Dauger, there to be kept securely, I write you this letter to tell you that when the said Captain de Vauroy has arrived in my citadel of Pignerol with the said prisoner you have to receive him from his hands and keep him in good and safe custody until further orders from Me, preventing him from communicating with anyone either verbally or by writing. And so that you do not encounter any difficulty in the execution of what is my will, I order the sieur marquis de Pienne,3 and in his absence he who commands in the said citadel, to give you for this purpose all the help and assistance you need, and may require. And the present [letter] being for no other purpose, I pray to God that he will have you, captain de Saint-Mars, in his holy keeping.
Written at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, le 26 July 1669.
Louis did not elaborate upon what Eustache had done to displease him, nor did he have any reason to: he had only to express his dissatisfaction and Eustache would be held in prison without trial for as long as Louis thought appropriate.
The lapse of nine days between Saint-Mars being alerted about his new prisoner and the lettre de cachet being issued for Eustache’s arrest was vital. Secrecy in such matters was paramount lest Eustache should somehow learn that he was about to be captured and make good his escape.
It was assumed that Vauroy knew Eustache, or that he knew who he was, for he was ordered to arrest him on sight and no mention is made of further verbal information being sent with the courier. Eustache’s face, therefore, was well known or had become so, at least in certain circles. Vauroy was ordered to take the prisoner directly to Pignerol, a long and difficult journey that would take some three weeks. In order to explain his absence, a cover story was invented, with Godefroy d’Estrades, the governor of Dunkirk, being told that Vauroy had been ordered to capture Spanish officers who were chasing deserters believed to have had fled into French territory.4
The risk that Eustache might escape was very real, for he was known to be in Calais, a major port and one of the gateways between France and England. It would be a relatively simple matter for him to board any ship leaving for England, where he could disappear into obscurity. It was with a sense of urgency, then, that Vauroy traveled to Calais as soon as he received his orders, taking with him three soldiers from the Dunkirk citadel. They appear to have had no problems in tracking down the fugitive and taking him into custody. This part of his orders having been carried out successfully, Vauroy and his men escorted their prisoner without delay to Pignerol. There was never any mention of hiding the man’s face or disguising who he was. Instead, the small group traveled on horseback by regular roads and stopped at convenient post-houses along the way.5
Nestling among the pine forests in a valley made lush by the crystal waters of the Chisone and Lemina torrents, Pignerol could hardly be more idyllic.6 Sheltered by the soaring Cottian Alps to the west, the town lies on the road connecting Briançon with Turin. Standing guard over one of the main routes to the Italian states, Pignerol was of major strategic importance in the 17th century. It had long been coveted by the kings of France and, in 1532, had been captured by François I only to be restored to the dukes of Savoy forty-two years later. Then, in 1630, Cardinal Richelieu, at the head of 20,000 men, seized the town for Louis XIII, his victory secured by the Treaty of Cherasco that was signed the following year.
Although now in French hands, the charming medieval town continued to be inhabited by the native and hostile Piedmontese population, whose loyalties remained with the duc de Savoy. It was heavily fortified, surrounded by bastions, moats, demi-lunes and counter-gardes,7 which protected it from enemy attack. Two main gates pierced these outer defenses: the Porte de France to the west and the Porte de Turin on the eastern side.
The town was guarded by the citadel, which had been built on its northeastern outskirts, and which was separated from the town itself by a strong wall, complete with ditches and drawbridges. The citadel housed a garrison, and this was manned by troops from several regiments, their colorful uniforms breaking the monotony of the drab gray walls of the surrounding buildings. Sitting on the edge of the citadel and looming over the town was the dark and sinister donjon. The citadel could be accessed from the town through the heavily guarded Porte de la Citadelle, but there was another gate, the secret Porte de Saint-Jacques, which led directly into the donjon from the outside. It was here, on August 21, 1669, that Eustache’s long journey came to an end and he passed into the care of his jailer, Saint-Mars.
The early life of Bénigne Dauvergne de Saint-Mars is s
ketchy, but some facts are known. He was born circa 1626 in Les Mésnuls to a family of minor gentry.8 Having lost both parents as a child, he was brought up by his uncle, Gilles de Byot de Blainvilliers, who sent him off to the army at the age of twelve. In 1650, the young man joined the musketeers, and it was at this point that he adopted Saint-Mars as his nom de guerre. Although his career progressed relatively slowly, he was promoted twice, first to the rank of brigadier, and then, at the age of thirty-four, to that of sergeant.
Saint-Mars served under the command of Charles Ogier de Batz-Castelmore, comte d’Artagnan, captain-lieutenant of the first company of the king’s musketeers. D’Artagnan was the historical figure upon whom Alexandre Dumas would later base his celebrated hero. When Louis XIV was looking for a man to take on the governorship of the donjon of Pignerol, d’Artagnan suggested his sergeant. He had recognized in Saint-Mars those qualities essential for a jailer, especially one who would be guarding state prisoners, where discipline and security were important considerations. As a military man, Saint-Mars knew well how to take orders and act upon them without question. He was generally pleasant, at least at this stage in his career, and discreet, and he could be relied upon to take his responsibilities seriously.
Pignerol was no ordinary prison. It was reserved for those who were considered to be dangerous to the state. It had first been used as a state prison in 1645, when Jean-Jacques de Barillon was incarcerated there on the orders of Anne of Austria. President of the Chambre des Enquêtes at the Parlement de Paris, Barillon was a political adversary of both Cardinal Richelieu and his successor, Cardinal Mazarin. He was arrested when he opposed the Edict de Toisé, which regulated the size of buildings constructed in the suburbs of Paris. He died shortly after his arrival at Pignerol.
Because of Pignerol’s importance as a state prison, as well as its position in territory hostile to the French, Louis authorized Saint-Mars to form a compagnie-franche d’infanterie, a free infantry company, which he was confident would be “very fine and very good.”9 At the same time, he promoted the former sergeant of the musketeers to the rank of captain. In addition to Saint-Mars, the compagnie-franche initially comprised four officers, three of whom were musketeers on detachment from their regular regiment, as well as two sergeants and fifty men. Within a few months, the company would be augmented with one more sergeant, three corporals, and five anspessades, or police officers, who ranked just below the corporals.10
Saint-Mars’s life had changed radically. The former musketeer was now captain of his own army and stationed on a strategically important frontier post. He was a jailer to a mysterious prisoner who had to be kept securely. In his private life, things had changed, too. On July 4, 1669, shortly before he received Eustache, Saint-Mars married Marie-Antoinette Collot, the daughter of a postmaster, at the church of Saint-Maurice in Pignerol. The couple would go on to have two sons. The eldest, Antoine Bénigne, born on June 17, 1672, would follow his father into the army, achieving the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the king’s dragoons. The couple’s second-born son, André Antoine, was born on November 29, 1679. He would marry Marguerite Ancel des Granges, a daughter of Louvois’s clerk. He would follow his father and elder brother into the military, becoming a guard in the gendarmes of Berry.
Madame de Saint-Mars had two sisters. The eldest, Françoise, was married to Louis Demorezan, commissioner for war at Pignerol. Marie, the younger sister, married Elie du Fresnoy, first clerk to Louvois in the ministry for war. Famed for her beauty, Marie would famously become Louvois’s mistress. She was appointed lady of the queen’s bed in 1673, a post that she no doubt owed to her lover, and which excited the imagination and amusement of the court. In a further connection, Louvois, acted as godfather to Saint-Mars’s eldest son, Antoine Bénigne, in November 1674.
The family connection did not end there, however. When he took up his post at Pignerol, Saint-Mars took with him two of his cousins, both of whom had also served in the musketeers. One cousin was Zachée de Byot, Seigneur de Blainvilliers, who was the son of Saint-Mars’s guardian, and who was appointed lieutenant of Saint-Mars’s compagne-franche. In time, two of Saint-Mars’s nephews would enter his service.11
The running of the donjon of Pignerol was indeed a family affair, but there were limits. While Saint-Mars had been placed in command of the donjon and given full control of every aspect of his prisoner’s life, he was not to act autonomously. Instead, he relied upon the guidance and orders of Louis as transmitted through a constant stream of correspondence with the marquis de Louvois. As time went by and more prisoners were committed to his care, Saint-Mars would send several letters each month containing minute details about those in his charge, how they lived, how he watched over them, and even what they said to him or to his staff.12 Upon receiving these communications, Louvois would read them out to Louis at one of their regular meetings. The king would dictate his response, which Louvois would dictate to a secretary before sending it back to Saint-Mars. A lone courier riding post could make the journey from Saint-Germain, or wherever the court happened to be, and Pignerol in about a week.
Now that he had taken charge of his prisoner, Saint-Mars had only to lodge him securely, but the special cell he had been ordered to prepare was not yet ready. A temporary cell, therefore, would have to do for the present; but Saint-Mars had some stern words of warning for his prisoner. As he wrote to Louvois: “As soon as I put him in a very safe place, while waiting for the cell that I was making ready for him, I told him in the presence of M. de Vauroy that if he spoke to me, to me [sic] or anyone else of anything other than of his needs, I would run him through with my sword.”13 Under no illusion about the dire consequences of disobeying the restrictions placed upon him, Eustache entered his cell. In this forbidding place, Eustache faced a life of loneliness and despair, his days long and without hope; but, whether or not he was aware of it, he was not the only prisoner at Pignerol.
TWO Nicolas Foucquet
Several years before Eustache’s ordeal began, Nicolas Foucquet had been arrested and put on trial for his life. One of the most powerful men in France at the time, Foucquet had enjoyed a successful career as procureur-général, where he put his extensive legal skills to good use on behalf of the crown in the Parlement of Paris. He had also held the post of superintendent of finances, in which capacity he was responsible for raising the funds needed by the state. The superintendence, however, had been in disarray for several decades, and although Foucquet had developed some sound ideas about the best way to reform it, he was prevented from implementing them because, for most of his tenure, France was at war with Spain. Money was always needed, usually urgently, to pay for men, horses, munitions, and other supplies. Much of this revenue had to be raised by extraordinary measures, which included borrowing at illegal rates and creating offices that were then sold to the highest bidder. While these practices were effective in raising the much-needed funds in the short term, they did nothing to alleviate the disorder in the finances.
During the life of Cardinal Mazarin, who had served as first minister during his minority, the young Louis XIV was content to leave the affairs of state to him. Mazarin was not only Louis’s godfather, he was also his mentor, instructing the inexperienced king in the art of statecraft. Upon the cardinal’s death, Louis announced that he intended to take the reins of power into his own hands. He would have no first minister and his ministers and secretaries of state were required to consult him on all matters. While most accepted this, Foucquet thought that the king, who was still only twenty-two and showed a great fondness for dancing, hunting, and women, would soon tire of endless council meetings and the complex affairs of state, and he looked forward to the day when the king would turn to him to direct the kingdom’s affairs as Mazarin had done. It was no secret that this had been Foucquet’s ambition, indeed, his expectation, but the superintendent had not reckoned on Louis’s determination and capacity for work, no matter how dull. Fallen from favor, Foucquet had been arrested on charges of m
alversation and lèse-majesté.
At his trial, Foucquet had protested that he was being made a scapegoat, taking punishment that should have been meted out to another, by which he meant the late Cardinal Mazarin. The truth of this argument was secretly recognized and accepted by a majority of Foucquet’s judges and, after more than three years of investigations and interrogations, followed by a show trial based upon unsound evidence, the packed panel of judges could not find sufficient cause to condemn Nicolas Foucquet to death, as Louis had wanted. Instead, by a majority of thirteen to nine, Foucquet was convicted of negligence and malfeasance in the exercise of his office as superintendent of finances. The recommended sentence was banishment beyond the borders of France for life and the confiscation of his possessions in favor of the crown, with the exception of a small amount of money to be donated to charity.1
The sentence was much less than had been expected, and desired, by the king; but, although Louis had pressed for Foucquet’s execution throughout the process, he was not prepared to break the law in order to achieve it. On the other hand, he knew that Foucquet had gained extensive knowledge of foreign affairs during his time in office. The former superintendent’s intelligence and affable nature made him particularly suited to diplomacy, and Louis had entrusted him with several sensitive missions. In Sweden, Foucquet had assisted the secretary of state for foreign affairs, Hugues de Lionne, strengthen ties with France, but he had acted independently in Holland, where he opened trade negotiations. He had also sent men and money to assist the French-born Queen Marie-Louise de Gonzague as she endeavored to secure the nomination of her nephew, the duc d’Enghien, as heir to the Polish throne.
Foucquet greatest success, however, had been in diplomatic relations with England. The people of France had embraced the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which brought peace between France and Spain, and which was sealed by the marriage of Louis XIV to the Spanish Infanta, Maria-Teresa. Amid the rejoicing, there were those who were not entirely satisfied with the treaty and thought that France should have benefited more from it. Specifically, the terms of the treaty prevented France from assisting its ally, Portugal, which was struggling to gain independence from Spain.
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