28. The Flint Water Crisis: Systemic Racism Through the Lens of Flint (Michigan Civil Rights Commission, February 17, 2017).
29. Khazan, “Being Black in America Can Be Hazardous to Your Health,” 82.
30. Muller, Sampson, and Winter, “Environmental Inequality,” 11.
31. Samantha Gross, “What Is the Trump Administration’s Track Record on the Environment,” Brookings, August 4, 2020, https://www.brookings.edu/policy2020/votervital/what-is-the-trump-administrations-track-record-on-the-environment; “Environmental Protections on the Chopping Block,” Environmental Integrity Project, https://environmentalintegrity.org/trump-watch-epa/regulatory-rollbacks, accessed October 15, 2020.
32. Peter Jamison, “‘Pure Incompetence,’” Washington Post, December 19, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/local/dc-opioid-epidemic-response-african-americans/?utm_term=.8f119fdace0a&wpisrc=nl_buzz&wpmm=1.
33. David Leonhardt, “What Does Opportunity Look Like Where You Live?,” New York Times, May 13, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/05/13/opinion/inequality-cities-life-expectancy.html?smid=tw-share.
34. Massey, “Why Death Haunts Black Lives,” 2.
35. See generally Ibram X. Kendi, How to Be an Antiracist (New York: Random House, 2019).
36. Caitlin Flanagan, “They Had It Coming,” Atlantic, April 4, 2019, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/04/what-college-admissions-scandal-reveals/586468. See also “College Admissions Scandal: Complete Coverage on a Brazen Scheme,” New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/news-event/college-admissions-scandal.
37. Raj Chetty, Nathaniel Hendren, and Lawrence F. Katz, “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment,” American Economic Review 106, no. 4 (2015).
38. Chetty et al., “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children,” 856; Lawrence F. Katz, Jeffrey R. Kling, and Jeffrey B. Leibman, “Moving to Opportunity in Boston: Early Results of a Randomized Mobility Experiment,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 116, no. 2 (2001); Susan Clampet-Lundquist and Douglas S. Massey, “Neighborhood Effects on Economic Self-Sufficiency: A Reconsideration of the Moving to Opportunity Experiment,” American Journal of Sociology 114, no. 1 (2008); Jeffrey R. Kling, Jeffrey B. Liebman, and Lawrence F. Katz, “Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects,” Econometrica 75, no. 1 (2007).
39. Chetty et al., “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children,” 889; James F. Rosenbaum et al., “Can the Kerner Commission’s Housing Strategy Improve Employment, Education, and Social Integration for Low-Income Blacks?,” University of North Carolina Law Review 71 (1993): 1530, showing that “the employment rates of suburban moves surpassed those of city movers, particularly for those who had never before had a job.”
40. Heather Schwartz, Housing Policy Is School Policy: Economically Integrative Housing Promotes Academic Success in Montgomery County, Maryland (New York: Century Foundation, 2010), 33–34.
41. Quentin Brummet and David Reed, “The Effects of Gentrification on the Well-Being and Opportunity of Original Resident Adults and Children,” Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, https://doi.org/10.21799/frbp.wp.2019.30, accessed October 15, 2020.
42. Nancy McArdle and Dolores Acevedo-Garcia, “Consequences of Segregation for Children’s Opportunity and Wellbeing,” paper presented at A Shared Future, a symposium hosted by the Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies, 2017, 4–5.
43. McArdle and Acevedo-Garcia, “Consequences of Segregation for Children’s Opportunity and Wellbeing,” 8.
44. Eric A. Hanushek and Steven G. Rivkin, “Harming the Best: How Schools Affect the Black-White Achievement Gap,” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 28 (2009): 366–93; Hamilton Lankford, Susanna Loeb, and James Wyckoff, “Teacher Sorting and the Plight of Urban Schools: A Descriptive Analysis,” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 24 (2002): 37–62; Roland G. Freyer and Steven D. Levitt, “Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School,” Review of Economics and Statistics 86 (2004): 447–64; Dennis J. Condron, “Social Class, School and Non-School Environments, and Black-White Inequalities in Children’s Learning,” American Sociological Review 74 (2009): 673–708.
45. James Coleman, “Equality of Educational Opportunity,” Equity and Excellence in Education 6, no. 5 (1968); Cashin, The Failures of Integration, 83–126; Richard D. Kahlenberg, All Together Now: Creating Middle-Class Schools Through Public School Choice (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001).
46. John R. Logan, Elisabeta Minca, and Sinem Adar, “The Geography of Inequality: Why Separate Means Unequal in American Public Schools,” Sociology of Education 85, no. 3 (2012): 2.
47. Jonathan Guryan, “Desegregation and Black Dropout Rates,” American Economic Review 94, no. 4 (2004); Rucker C. Johnson, “Long-Run Impacts of School Desegregation & School Quality on Adult Attainments,” National Bureau of Economic Research, working paper (2011); David A. Weiner, Byron F. Lutz, and Jens Ludwig, “The Effects of School Desegregation on Crime,” National Bureau of Economic Research, working paper (2011); David J. Deming, “Better Schools, Less Crime?,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126, no. 4 (2011).
48. Gary Orfield, John Kucsera, and Genevieve Siegel-Hawley, “E Pluribus . . . Separation: Deepening Double Segregation for More Students,” Civil Rights Project, September 2012, 6–11, https://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integration-and-diversity/mlk-national/e-pluribus . . . separation-deepening-double-segregation-for-more-students. See also Myron Orfield and Thomas Luce, “America’s Racially Diverse Suburbs: Opportunities and Challenges,” Institute on Metropolitan Opportunity, July 20, 2012, 39, https://www.law.umn.edu/sites/law.umn.edu/files/metro-files/diverse_suburbs_final.pdf.
49. See chapter 8 discussion of the school-to-prison pipeline.
50. Sharkey, Uneasy Peace, 181–82; Tracy Meares, “Simple Solutions? The Complexity of Public Attitudes Relevant to Drug Law Enforcement Policy,” in Crime Control or Justice: The Delicate Balance, ed. Darnell F. Hawkins, Samuel L. Myers, and Randolph N. Stone (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003); see also chapter 5 of this book.
51. See, e.g., Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged.
52. See, e.g., Robert D. Putnam, “Crumbling American Dream,” New York Times, August 3, 2013, https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/08/03/crumbling-american-dreams.
53. Stephen B. Billings, David J. Deming, and Jonah E. Rockoff, “School Segregation, Educational Attainment and Crime: Evidence from the End of Busing in Charlotte-Mecklenburg,” National Bureau of Economic Research, working paper (2012). See also Ray Fishman, “Brown v. Board Reduced Crime,” Slate, April 9, 2013, https://slate.com/business/2013/04/desegregation-and-crime-resegregation-has-led-to-a-spike-in-violent-crime.html.
54. Sampson, Great American City.
55. Sharkey, Uneasy Peace, 159.
56. James Forman Jr., “The Society of Fugitives,” Atlantic, October 2014, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/10/the-society-of-fugitives/379328; David M. Kennedy, Anne M. Piehl, and Anthony A. Braga, “Youth Violence in Boston: Gun Markets, Serious Youth Offenders, and a Use-Reduction Strategy,” Law and Contemporary Problems 59, no. 1 (Winter 1996): 147–96.
57. María B. Vélez, Christopher J. Lyons, and Wayne A. Santoro, “The Political Context of the Percent Black-Neighborhood Violence Link: A Multilevel Analysis,” Social Problems 62, no. 1 (2015): 107.
58. Vélez et al., “The Political Context of the Percent Black-Neighborhood Violence Link,” 107–8.
59. See generally Velez et al., “The Political Context of the Percent Black-Neighborhood Violence Link,” 110; Sharkey, Uneasy Peace; Sampson, Great American City.
60. Chetty et al., “Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: An Intergenerational Perspective,” working paper (2018), 7. See also Emily Badger et al., “Extensive Data Shows Punishing Reach of Racism for Black Boys,” New York Times,
March 19, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/03/19/upshot/race-class-white-and-black-men.html?mtrref=www.google.com&gwh=8DDB4E003D42D99234C49C002EBD769A&gwt=pay&assetType=REGIWALL.
61. Sheryll Cashin, “In Shepherd Park, We’re Working Toward a Racially Diverse Eden,” Washington Post, August 25, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/in-shepherd-park-were-making-it-up-as-we-go-along/2017/08/25/acb4db8c-8766-11e7-a50f-e0d4e6ec070a_story.html.
62. Chetty et al., “Race and Economic Opportunities in the United States,” 7.
63. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged, 135, 264–67; Alexander, The New Jim Crow, 6–7.
CHAPTER 8: SURVEILLANCE
1. “1,017 People Have Been Shot and Killed by Police in the Past Year,” Washington Post, updated July 1, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/investigations/police-shootings-database/?itid=lk_inline_manual_5.
2. “2018 Hate Crime Statistics,” Criminal Justice Information Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2018/topic-pages/victims. In 2018, there were 5,155 victims of race/ethnicity/ancestry motivated hate crime. 47.1 percent were victims of crimes motivated by offenders’ anti-Black of African American bias. The second largest group (20.1 percent) are victims of antiwhite bias.
3. Eyder Peralta and Cheryl Corley, “The Driving Life and Death of Philando Castile,” NPR, July 15, 2016, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/07/15/485835272/the-driving-life-and-death-of-philando-castile.
4. Interview with Dr. Darryl Atwell, March 9, 2020, notes on file with author.
5. Elijah Anderson, The Cosmopolitan Canopy: Race and Civility in Everyday Life (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 249; Anderson, “The Iconic Ghetto,” 8.
6. Robert J. Sampson and Stephen W. Raudenbush, “Neighborhood Stigma and the Perception of Disorder,” Social Psychology Quarterly 67, no. 4 (2004): 337, https://www-jstor-org.proxygt-law.wrlc.org/stable/3649091?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents.
7. Anderson, “The Iconic Ghetto,” 17.
8. Derek Hawkins, “Fort Worth Police Officer Fatally Shoots Woman in Her Home While Checking on an Open Front Door,” Washington Post, October 13, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/10/13/fort-worth-police-officer-fatally-shoots-woman-her-home-while-checking-an-open-front-door.
9. Errin Haines, “Family Seeks Answers in Fatal Police Shooting of Louisville Woman in Her Apartment,” Washington Post, May 11, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/05/11/family-seeks-answers-fatal-police-shooting-louisville-woman-her-apartment.
10. “Racial Disparities in D.C. Policing: Descriptive Evidence from 2013–2017,” May 13, 2019, last updated July 31, 2019, https://www.acludc.org/en/racial-disparities-dc-policing-descriptive-evidence-2013-2017.
11. Peter Hermann, “Study Finds Disproportionate Number of Black People Arrested in D.C.,” Washington Post, May 14, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/study-finds-disproportionate-number-of-black-people-arrested-in-dc/2019/05/14/92cf2d26-735a-11e98be0-ca575670e91c_story.html?utm_term=.bd0686584ab9.
12. See chapter 4.
13. Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119 (2000); see also Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968).
14. John Sullivan et al., “Four Years in a Row, Police Nationwide Fatally Shoot Nearly 1,000 People,” Washington Post, February 12, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/four-years-in-a-row-police-nationwide-fatally-shoot-nearly-1000-people/2019/02/07/0cb3b098-020f-11e9-9122-82e98f91ee6f_story.html; Alexi Jones and Wendy Sawyer, “Not Just ‘A Few Bad Apples’: U.S. Police Kill Civilians at Much Higher Rates Than Other Countries,” Prison Policy Initiative, June 5, 2020, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2020/06/05/policekillings.
15. Odis Johnson Jr. et al., “How Neighborhoods Matter in Fatal Interactions Between Police and Men of Color,” Social Science and Medicine 220 (2019): 227, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.11.024; Michael Siegel et al., “Residential Segregation and Black-White Disparities in Fatal Police Shootings at the City Level, 2013–2017,” Journal of the National Medical Association 111 (2019): 580–87, doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2019.06.003.
16. Ed Chung, “The Trump Administration,” Center for American Progress, April 13, 2017, https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/news/2017/04/13/430461/trump-administration-putting-doj-policing-reform-efforts-risk.
17. US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Investigation of the Baltimore City Police Department (2016), 26, https://www.justice.gov/crt/file/883296/download.
18. US Department of Justice, Investigation of Baltimore, 65–66.
19. US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division and US Attorney’s Office, Northern District of Illinois, Investigation of the Chicago Police Department (2017), 31, https://www.justice.gov/opa/file/925846/download.
20. US Department of Justice, Investigation of the Chicago Police, 143.
21. US Department of Justice, Investigation of the Chicago Police, 146.
22. Butler, Chokehold, 74–75.
23. George L. Kelling and James Q. Wilson, “Broken Windows: The Police and Neighborhood Safety,” Atlantic, March 1982, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1982/03/broken-windows/304465, accessed July 12, 2020.
24. K. Babe Howell, “Broken Lives from Broken Windows: The Hidden Costs of Aggressive Order-Maintenance Policing,” NYU Review of Law & Social Change 33 (2009): 276, https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1166&context=cl_pubs; K. Babe Howell, “The Costs of ‘Broken Windows’ Policing: Twenty Years and Counting,” Cardozo Law Review 37 (2016): 1062–64, https://heinonline-org.proxygt-law.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/cdozo37&id=1128&men_tab=srchresults.
25. Al Baker et al., “Beyond the Chokehold: The Path to Eric Garner’s Death,” New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/14/nyregion/eric-garner-police-chokehold-staten-island.html.
26. “Analysis of New NYPD Stop-and-Frisk Data Reveals Dramatic Impact on Black New Yorkers,” American Civil Liberties Union, published Nov. 26, 2007, http://aclu.org/racialjustice/racialprofiling/33095prs20071126.html. See also Jeffrey Fagan et al., “Street Stops and Broken Windows Revisited: The Demography and Logic of Proactive Policing in a Safe and Changing City,” in Race, Ethnicity, and Policing: New and Essential Readings, eds. Stephen K. Rice and Michael D. White (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 336.
27. Howell, “The Costs of ‘Broken Windows,’” 1068.
28. The Editorial Board, “The Legacy of Stop-and-Frisk in New York’s Marijuana Arrests,” New York Times, May 14, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/14/opinion/stop-frisk-marijuana-nyc.html.
29. Ashley Southall, “Scrutiny of Social-Distance Policing as 35 of 40 Arrested Are Black,” New York Times, updated May 29, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/07/nyregion/nypd-social-distancing-race-coronavirus.html; Ben Kesslen, “NYPD to No Longer Enforce Wearing Masks Absent ‘Serious Danger,’ Mayor Says,” NBC News, May 15, 2020, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/nypd-no-longer-enforce-wearing-masks-absent-serious-danger-mayor-n1207931.
30. US Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, QuickFacts: New York City, New York; Kings County (Brooklyn Borough), New York (2020), https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/newyorkcitynewyork,kingscountybrooklynboroughnewyork/PST045219.
31. “Mapping Prejudice,” https://www.mappingprejudice.org; PBS, “Jim Crow of the North,” Twin Cities PBS Original, 56:45, aired February 25, 2019, https://www.pbs.org/video/jim-crow-of-the-north-stijws, accessed July 26, 2020.
32. Myron Orfield and Will Stancil, “George Floyd and Derek Chauvin Might as Well Have Lived on Different Planets,” New York Times, June 3, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/03/opinion/george-floyd-minneapolis-segregation.html; Adam Minter, “In George Floyd’s City, Inequalities Are Everywhere,” Star Tribune, June 9, 2020, https://www.startribune.com/in-george-floyd-s-city-inequalities-are-everywhere/571133202; David Leonhardt and Yaryna Serkez, “What Does Opportunity Look Like Where You Live?
,” New York Times, May 13, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/05/13/opinion/inequality-cities-life-expectancy.html.
33. Richard A. Oppel Jr. and Lazaro Gamio, “Minneapolis Police Use Force Against Black People at 7 Times the Rate of Whites,” New York Times, June 3, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/06/03/us/minneapolis-police-use-of-force.html?action=click&module=RelatedLinks&pgtype=Article.
34. Interview with Jason Kise, June 15, 2020, notes on file with the author.
35. Oppel Jr. and Gamio, “Minneapolis Police Use Force.”
36. Casey Kellogg, “There Goes the Neighborhood: Exposing the Relationship Between Gentrification and Incarceration,” Themis: Research Journal of Justice Studies and Forensic Science 3 (2015): 178, 185–86, https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=themis; Mischa-von-Derek Aikman, “Gentrification’s Effect on Crime Rates,” Urban Economics, last visited December 11, 2017, https://sites.duke.edu/urbaneconomics/files/2014/04/Gentrification%E2%80%99s-Effect-on-Crime-Rates.pdf; Ayobami Laniyonu, “Coffee Shops and Street Stops: Policing Practices in Gentrifying Neighborhoods,” Urban Affairs Review 54 (2017): 898–930, https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087416689728.
37. Oppel Jr. and Gamio, “Minneapolis Police Use Force.”
38. Orfield and Stancil, “George Floyd and Derek Chauvin.”
39. Paul Hirschfield, “Lethal Policing: Making Sense of American Exceptionalism,” Sociological Forum 30 (2015): 1111, doi:10.1111/socf.12200, accessed July 19, 2020.
40. Forman, Locking Up Our Own; John R. Logan and Deirdre Oakley, “Black Lives and Policing: The Larger Context of Ghettoization,” Journal of Urban Affairs 39 (2017): 1031–46, doi:10.1080/07352166.2017.1328977.
41. Butler, Chokehold.
42. Duneier, Ghetto.
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