Chokehold: Policing Black Men (Butler), 175
The Christian Recorder (AME church newspaper), 39
Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title CI, 29–31, 129
Clark, Kenneth, 49, 62
Cleveland, OH: ghettoization in, 43–44, 168; policing in, 168–69; race relations in, 42–43
Clinton, Bill: appeals to white racial conservatives, 91, 93; housing policies, 68, 187–88; personal beliefs vs. public policies, 92–93; as “tough on crime,” 90–92; welfare policies, 92
Clinton, Hillary, 94
Coates, Ta-Nehisi, 53
Coleman, Julia P. H., 11
Coley, Rebekah Levine, 95
collective ownership strategies, 210–11
The Color Law (Rothstein), 210
“the color line,” 41–42, 55. See also ghettoization
concentrated poverty, defined, 74
Connecticut Coalition for Justice in Educational Funding, 132–33
Connecticut Fair Housing Center, 135–36
containment practices. See ghettoization; highways and road systems; incarceration, carceral policies
Cooper, Amy, 1–2
Cooper, Christian, 1–3, 183
COVID-19 pandemic: deaths in Baltimore, 37; impact on school budgets, 128; and increase in violence, 199; and punitive policing, 177
crack crisis. See War on Drugs
credit laws and policies: access issues, 14, 32, 215, 224n24; and predatory lending, 15, 52–53, 125–26
“crime-free” housing ordinances, 185–86
Culberson, John, 114
Cuomo, Andrew, 131
Curtis, Essie, 194
Curtis, Mary, 192–93
Dallas, TX, poverty concentration, 108–9
Dark Ghetto (Clark), 62
Davis, Angela, 202–3
DC General homeless shelter, 147–48
de Blasio, Bill, 132, 176–77
deindustrialization, 54–55, 70, 163
Denton, Nancy, 71–73
Department of Justice (DOJ): investigations of police departments, 173, 180, 215; and NY State school funding, 130–31; Smart on
Crime Initiative, 96
DePino, Melissa, 105
descendants: and approaches to abolition and repair, 158–59, 204, 207–8, 212; class distinctions among 14–15, 70, 73–74, 88; defined, 4–5; and the enduring effects of enslavement, 41–42, 44, 72, 151 157, 163, 187, 210; First Great Migration, 41–42; life expectancy, 154–55, 157; ongoing support for segregated housing by HUD and other federal agencies, 64–66; separate and unequal reality of, 89, 157–58. See also ghetto mythology; stereotyping
Detroit, MI, 58, 116
DiIulio, John J., Jr., 94
discrimination. See segregation
Dog Whistle Politics (López), 80–81
Dorsey, Virginia Cashin and William, 38, 40
Drake, St. Clair, 49–51
D rated properties (redlined), 52, 224n24. See also ghettoization
Dred Scott decision, 139
drugs. See War on Drugs
Du Bois, W. E. B.: on criminalizing the poor, 40–41; home in Baltimore, 14; on need for new democratic institutions, 202–3; Niagara Movement, 11; The Philadelphia Negro, 40, 88; on the roots of Black poverty, 41; use of the term “slum,” 40
Dukakis, Michael, 89–90
Dyson, Michael Eric, 95
education policy: and attacks on busing, 82; and boundary maintenance, 138–39; Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, 79, 139–40; and carceral, punitive approaches, 160–61; educational curricula, 140; and geographical segregation, 134, 138–39; Milliken v. Bradley, 1974, 67–68; promoting integration and equity, 11, 96, 211–12; and property taxes, 127; and school resource officers (SROs), police, 181–82; and standardized testing, 140; and teacher inequality, 137; unequal distribution of resources, 56–57, 137–38, 159; value of integration for all students, 159–60. See also integration; public schools
Emanuel, Rahm, 122
enslavement: in Connecticut, 134; and monitoring, surveillance, 183; replacement of, with caste system, 84–88, 199–200, 202. See also abolition and repair; descendants; stereotyping
Enterprise Zone funding, 34–35
environmental racism, 30, 34, 111–12, 119, 154–57
Equal Rights League, 39
Ethington, Clyde, 193
eugenics, 9, 14, 49, 88
European immigrants, 39, 44, 49, 70, 236n38
facial recognition technology, 190
Faribault, MN, “crime-free” housing ordinances, 185–86
fair housing laws: Fair Housing Act of 1968, 19, 56, 64; and HUD vouchers, 149–50; non-enforcement of, 82
Farnsley, Charles, 141
Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 16, 52
Fells Point/Canton neighborhoods, gentrification of, 34
FEMA disaster relief, 124
Ferguson, MO, 180
financial/foreclosure crisis, 2008, 7, 122, 124–26, 135
First Step Act of 2018, 100
Fischer, Greg, 142
Flint, MI, water crisis, 155–56
Floyd, George, 2–3, 177–78
Floyd v. City of New York, 176
food deserts, 95, 122, 155
Foundation Aid funding, NY, inequitable distribution of funding, 128–30
Fountain View housing complex, proposed, Houston, 113–15
Franke, Katherine, 210
Frazier, Darnella, 3
Frazier, E. Franklin, 87
Garfield Heights neighborhood, Washington, DC, 150–52
Garner, Eric, 176
Garvin, Charles, 45–46
General Motors plant, Baltimore, closing of, 19, 67–68
gentrification: and displacement, 17–18, 118, 189–90, 211, 252n79; and Opportunity Zones, 124–25; and policing, 178; and tax breaks, 34, 252n79. See also white space
geography, and social caste, 5, 110. See also residential caste system
Georgia vigilantism in, 184–85
gerrymandering, 76, 103–4, 207
ghetto: origin, 41; as a social construct, 6; as a term, 89
ghettoization: and concentrated poverty, 4–5, 57, 72–76, 88–89 153–54; as a containment strategy, 19–20, 37, 52, 104, 106, 179; contributions of the media to, 62; inverse, 112; as mechanism of white supremacy, 50–51, 134; as a policy choice, 4, 49–51, 60; process of, Cleveland example, 48; and race-based zoning, 10, 19, 51–52, 109. See also the hood (Black space, ghetto); white supremacy
ghetto mythology: and the absent Black father, 95–96; and anti-Black stereotyping, 86; and blame narratives, 48, 51, 54, 88, 103, 157–61; G. H. W. Bush’s use of, 89–91; Bill Clinton’s use of, 92–94; Hillary Clinton’s use of, 94; and criminalizing poverty, 84; debunking efforts, 94, 101; and law and order codes, 79; and the lens of pathology and delinquency, 63, 87–88, 104, 200–201; and the “race problem,” 79; statistical data and, 101–2; super-predator theory, 94, 185, 221n16; Trump’s use of, 97–99; value of, for white people, 85; and the “welfare queen,” 77–80; and white nationalist mythologies, 85. See also stereotyping; white supremacy
Gilmore, Ruth Wilson, 203
Gingrich, Newt, 92
Glendening, Parris, 23
Gray, Freddie, 14, 26–27
Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect (Sampson), 161
Great Migrations: First, 41–42, Second, 53
Greenberg, Stanley, 80
Greenwood District, Tulsa, 46–47
gun violence, 37, 93, 182, 191, 194, 196–99
Harlem Park neighborhood, Baltimore, 16–17, 35
Hawkins, W. Ashbie, 10–14
health: access to health services, 121; in Baltimore, 21, 30, 37; and the COVID-19 pandemic, 199; and drug treatment, 93; and food deserts, 95, 122; in high-poverty areas, stressors, 148, 154–55; lead exposure, 155; life expectancy, 154–55. See also transportation policy
Hernandez, Ramon, 189
Heyer, Heather, 98
highways
and road systems: as barriers between neighborhoods, 25, 107, 116; and the destruction of Black neighborhoods, 16–17; interstate highway program, 54, 107, 116, 201; and investment in white spaces, 120–21; and public transportation, 29, 34; and the “Road to Nowhere,” Baltimore, 17–18, 30; and urban renewal, 17. See also gentrification; transportation policy
Hill, Arthur, 45
Hill District, Pittsburgh, 108
Hirsch, Arnold, 53–54
Hogan, Larry 25–30, 34, 36–37
HOLC. See Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), Baltimore
Hollenden Barber Shop, Cleveland, 42, 48
homelessness, 146–48, 186, 210
home ownership: Black-white disparities, 7, 56; collective land ownership, 210–11; property taxes, 127; and property values, 9–10; and restrictive covenants, 13–14; and speculators in Baltimore during World War II, 15; and white wealth, 5
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), Baltimore: color-coded ratings, 15; D ratings, 18; and the invention of redlining, 14–15, 52
the hood (Black space, ghetto): Black speculators in, 15; as blighted, “infested”, 4, 17; children in, stressors, 154; competition with white space, 200; and concentrated poverty, 75–76; containment function, 6; and deindustrialization, 54–55, 70, 163; and differential policing, 61–62, 171 173, 175–76, 179, 181–82; disinvestment in, 121; and erosion of resources and tax bases, 119; as food deserts, 95; importance for sustaining advantages to white space, 57, 74; as the “inner city,” 82; investing in, importance, 121, 203, 205–6; mechanisms that prevent escape from, 6; need for repair and investment, 202, 204; over-policing, 179; slum clearance programs, 113; stereotypes about, and extreme poverty, 201; and vice districts, 44; and violent crime, 161–62. See also ghettoization; poverty; residential caste system
hooks, bell, 206
Horton, William R. “Willie,” 90
Housing and Urban Development (HUD): Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing (AFFH) rule, 68–69; block grants, 65; civil rights investigations, 114; housing-choice vouchers, 66, 149; incentives for private development of affordable housing, 66; Moving to Opportunity program, 19–20; promotion of residential mobility and integration, 68, 96; and Reagan’s budget cuts, 82; and George Romney’s Open Communities initiative, 64–65; segregation policies, 66; surveillance of public housing tenants, 188
housing policy: affordable housing, 21, 150–51; collective ownership projects, 210–11; and the concentration of poverty, 6; Gautreaux v. Chicago Housing Authority, 67–68; home loans and credit, 125–26; housing mobility programs, 151; King’s focus on, 61; options for affluent descendants, 73–74; policing of public housing tenants, 187–88; promoting integration and inclusion, 99, 109, 158–59, 210; and public-private investments, 121; and school segregation, 141–42; and the suburban dream, 70; sundown towns and “crime-free” ordinances, 185–86. See also ghettoization; residential caste system
Houston, TX, 108, 112–15
Hughes, Langston, 45
Hunter, Jane Edna, 44
“hypersegregation,” defined, 55. See also residential caste system
Hyra, Derek, 117–18
immigration policies and laws: and eugenics, 49; and race hatred, 53–54; reforming, 70, 207
incarceration, carceral policies: alternatives to, 202–3; Atwell’s experience, 164–68; Black-white disparities, 56; of children, 181; and Clinton’s “tough on crime” persona, 90, 93–94; following the civil rights era, 83; and furlough programs, 90; and mass incarceration, 83–84, 89–90, 163, 181, 192; money spent on, 204–5; noncarceral approaches, 182; nonviolent drug offences, 83, 100, 204; and privatized prisons, 84; as tool for containment, 6; Trump administration, 100. See also policing; stereotyping
income inequality: and household wealth, 56; increasing concentration of, 74–76; and integrated vs. segregated regions, 143–44; and opportunity hoarding, 118–19; programs for alleviating, 149; in Texas, 248n28
Indigenous peoples: genocide of, 202; protections for in Canada, 236n39; and white supremacy, 71–72
Individual Education Program (IEP), 148
“inner city,” as a term, 82. See also the hood (Black space, ghetto)
Institute for Colored Youth, Philadelphia, 39
integration: and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, 56; integration pioneers, 55–56, 62; Kerner Report/ Romney recommendations, 64–65; Obama administration policies, 68–69; resistance to, 48, 72,79–81, 112, 137, 140–43; Trump administration policies, 100; value of promoting, 151, 159–60, 215. See also education policy; segregation
“I Promise School,” Akron, OH, 211–12
Jackson, Keith, 91
James, LeBron, 211
Jargowsky, Paul, 74, 107–9, 120
Jefferson, Atatiana, 171–72
Jefferson, Thomas, 85–86
Jim Crow South, 5, 86
Johnson, Lyndon: National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 59; response to the Kerner report, 63; War on Crime, 63, 83; War on Poverty, 63, 81
Jones, Kimberly, 75–76
Jordan, Samuel, 31
Kant, Immanuel, 85–86
Kendi, Ibram X., 85
Kennedy, Anthony, 141
Kennedy, Randall, 89
Kerner, Otto, 59
Kerner Commission (National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders) and Report, 59–64, 75
King, John, 96
King, Martin Luther, Jr.: assassination, riots following, 17–18, 64; Beloved Community, 206; Clinton’s referencing of, 93; on white response to nonviolent protest, 61
King, Rodney, 173
Kirwan Commission, Maryland, 37
Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 47–48, 80
Lacy, Karyn, 74
land ownership, collective, 210–11
land theft, 53
Latinx people, 7, 153–54
law and order rhetoric, 4, 58, 63–64, 79, 97–98, 100, 179. See also policing
law of discovery, 236n38
Lawrence, MA, 211
lead exposure, 155–57
Lenhardt, Robin, 144
Levin, Josh, 78
Lewis, John, 98–99
Lincoln Park neighborhood, Washington, DC, 152–53
loans. See credit laws and policies
Logan, John, 153
López, Ian Haney, 80–81
Los Angeles, CA, Watts riots, 58–59
Louisville, KY, 12, 140–42
love, and social change, 191, 194–95, 198, 206–7, 215
Low-Income Housing Tax Credit program, 66, 112–13
lynching, 41, 47, 185
Mahool, J. Barry, 10
Mallach, Alan, 122–23
Marshall, Thurgood, 12
Maryland Transit Administration (MTA), 22–23
Massey, Douglas, 71–73, 118–20
mass incarceration. See incarceration, carceral policies
McCoy, Joseph, 194–95
McCulloh Street-Madison Avenue Protective Association (Baltimore), 10
McFarlane, Audrey, 35
McMechen, George W. F., 10
McMichael, Gregory and Travis, 184
media: and blame narratives, 28, 83; coverage of Watts riot, 59; Kerner Report criticisms of, 62; and surveillance and vigilantism, 189–90
Metropolitan Housing Coalition, Louisville, 142–43
Mikulski, Barbara, 17, 19–20
Milliken v. Bradley, 1974, 67–68, 140
Milwaukee, WI, 186–87, 208–9
Minneapolis, MN, 177–78
Mitchell, Clarence Jr., 17
Mitchell, Parren, 16–17
Morgan State University, Baltimore, 16
Morrison, Toni, 92
mortgage loans. See credit laws and policies
Mother Bethel AME Church, Philadelphia, 39
“Movement Against Destruction” (Harlem Park, Baltimore), 16
Moving to Opportunity program (HUD), 19–20, 158
Moving Toward Integration, 143–44
Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 87–88, 95<
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Muennig, Peter, 156
Murray, Charles, 88
Myers, George A., 42–45, 47–48
Myrdal, Gunnar, 51
NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), 11–12, 29
The Negro Family (Frazier), 87
The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Moynihan), 87–88
neighborhoods. See residential caste system
Nelson, Rashon, 105
The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (Alexander), 82–83
New York City: differential policing in, 175–76; income from zero-tolerance policing, 180; police patrols in public schools, 181; premier public high schools, 132; racial tensions, 1–2; 311 calls for quality-of-life complaints, 188–89
New York State, school funding issues, 128–32
The Nigger (Fox Film), 48
Nixon, Richard, 63–65, 78–79
NOMA (North of Massachusetts Avenue), Washington, DC, 116–17
Obama, Barack: branding of protesters as “thugs,” 27; challenges faced as the first Black president, 96; commutations and pardons, 96; DOJ investigations of aggressive police departments, 173–74; lectures about personal responsibility, 94–96; policy changes during second term, 96, 188; response to complaints about racism, 130–31
Office of Neighborhood Safety (ONS), Richmond, CA, 196–97
Open Communities initiative (George Romney), 64–65
opportunity hoarding: and boundary maintenance, 112–18; as a concept, 248n22; examples and impacts, 107–11; and public schools, 140; and the residential
caste system, 5–6, 118–20, 172, 200; reversing, approaches and effects, 158–59; and upward mobility, 118–20; and violent crime, 162; and white spaces, 201. See also education policy; public schools
Opportunity Zones, 6, 124
Orfield, Gary, 141
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1, 141
pathology narrative. See ghetto
mythology; stereotyping
Patillo, Mary, 73–74
Patterson, Orlando, 88–89
Peacemaker Fellowship programs, 195–98, 209
Peoria, IL, nuisance law citations, 187
Philadelphia, PA: Black residents in, 38–40; community land trust, 210–11; and lending discrimination, 125; mandatory inclusionary zoning, 109; Starbucks incident and arrest, 105; 19th century streetcar segregation protests, 39–40
The Philadelphia Negro (Du Bois), 39, 88, 107
Pittsburgh, PA, 107–8
Plank, Kevin, 36
White Space, Black Hood Page 36
