The historically sound tradition began with John Marshall’s The Life of George Washington, 5 vols. (London, 1804–1807). Important other works include Henry Cabot Lodge’s George Washington, 2 vols. (Boston and New York, 1889); Paul Leicester Ford’s The True George Washington, (Philadelphia, 1898); Rupert Hughes’s uncompleted George Washington, 3 vols. (New York, 1926–1930); Samuel Eliot Morison’s brief The Young George Washington (Cambridge, Mass., 1932); John C. Fitzpatrick’s George Washington Himself (Indianapolis, Ind., 1933); and Marcus Cunliffe’s George Washington: Man and Monument (Boston, 1958). Standing alone as the most complete and most accurate documentary life of Washington is Douglas Southall Freeman’s George Washington: A Biography (completed by J. A. Carroll and M. W. Ashworth), 7 vols. (New York, 1948–1957). This work, which is as close to a primary source as is possible for any such publication to be, has been extremely useful to me.
The goody-goody tradition was pioneered, directly after Washington’s death, about 1800, by the inventor of the story about the cherry tree, that enticing fictionalizer Mason Locke (Parson) Weems. His The Life of George Washington, with Curious Anecdotes Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young Countrymen has gone into hundreds of editions and has been imitated by hundreds of other writers who, throughout the nineteenth and into the twentieth century, sought to edify the young and bolster their own moralizing by forging fictional Washingtons. Eventually this flood helped to create its equally fallacious opposite: the debunking tradition. The first truly influential biography in this mode was W. E. Woodward’s George Washington: The Image and the Man (New York, 1926). Presenting Washington as stupid, dishonest, and venal is still an occupation of hack writers, whose effusions seemingly rise in the best-seller lists in exact relation to their inaccuracy.
To attempt to specify here the many thousands of printed sources to which I have been led by the ramifications of Washington’s career would obviously create a list out of all proportion. The reader may turn to the bibliographies of my four original volumes, where some five hundred selected titles are listed. Or he may consult the bibliography in volume VI of Freeman’s Washington, a list that runs to sixty-eight pages. I shall merely add to the sources already cited here the titles of some thirty other publications that I have found especially useful:
Adams, John, Works, ed. Charles Francis Adams, 10 vols. (Boston, 1850–1856).
American State Papers, Foreign Relations, Vol. I (Washington, D.C., 1832); Miscellaneous, Vol. I (Washington, D.C., 1834).
Burnett, Edmund C, ed., Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, 8 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1921–1926).
Continental Congress, Journals, 1774–1789, 8 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1921–1926).
Custis, George Washington Parke, Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington (New York, 1860).
Farrand, Max, ed., Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 4 vols. (New Haven, 1937).
Force, Peter, ed., American Archives, 9 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1837–1853).
Hamilton, Alexander, Papers, ed. Harold C. Syrett, vols. I–XIX, all that have been published (New York, 1961–1973).
——, Works, ed. John C. Hamilton, 7 vols. (New York, 1851).
Humphreys, David, “The Life of George Washington,” manuscript, Rosenbach Foundation, Philadelphia.
Jay, John, The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay, ed. Henry P. Johnston, 4 vols. (New York, 1890–1893).
Jefferson, Thomas, Papers, ed. Julian P. Boyd, vols. I–XVIII, all that have been published (Princeton, N.J., 1950–1971).
——, Writings, ed. Paul Leicester Ford, 10 vols. (New York, 1892–1899).
——, Writings, ed. A. A. Lipscomb and A. E. Berg, 20 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1903).
Lee, Charles, The Lee Papers, 4 vols. (New York, 1872–1875).
Madison, James, Writings, ed. Gaillard Hunt, 9 vols. (New York, 1900–1910).
Malone, Dumas, Jefferson and His Time, 4 vols. (Boston, 1951–1970).
Monroe, James, Writings, ed. Stanislaus Murray Hamilton, 7 vols. (New York, 1898–1899).
“Particulars of the Life and Character of General Washington,” by an Old Soldier, reprinted from Gentleman’s Magazine (London, August, 1778) in William S. Baker, ed., Early Sketches of George Washington (Philadelphia, 1894), pp. 47–55.
Pickering, Octavius, The Life of Timothy Pickering, 4 vols. (Boston, 1867–1873).
Washington, George, Account of Expenses while Commander in Chief, with annotations of John C. Fitzpatrick (Boston, 1917).
——, Calendar of the Correspondence of George Washington … with the Continental Congress, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington, D.C., 1906).
——, Calendar of the Correspondence of George Washington … with the Officers, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick, 4 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1915).
——, Calendar of the Washington Manuscripts in the Library of Congress, ed. Herbert Friedenwald (Washington, D.C., 1901).
——, Epistles Domestic, Confidential, and Official from General Washington (New York, 1796). Forgery.
——, The George Washington Atlas, ed. Lawrence Martin (Washington, D.C., 1932).
——, Last Will and Testament, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Mount Vernon, 1939).
——, Ledger A, facsimile of the originals in the Library of Congress, 3 vols. (Boston, 1922).
——, The Will of General Washington to which is Annexed a Schedule of his Property Directed to be Sold (Alexandria, Va., 1800).
——, Writings, ed. Jared Sparks, 12 vols. (Boston, 1834–1837).
——, Writings, ed. Worthington Chauncey Ford, 14 vols. (New York and London, 1889–1893).
[Wolcott, Oliver], Memoirs of the Administrations of Washington and John Adams, ed. George Gibbs, 2 vols. (New York, 1846).
Index
Adams, Abigail, 376, 393; comments on GW, 69, 227–228
Adams, John, 293, 325, 341, 347; relationship with GW, 60–61, 63, 69, 218, 220, 222, 227, 346, 357, 359; as Vice President, 220–221; Presidency, 357–358, 380; role in army command issue, 372–377, 382; French policy, 369, 382–384
Adet, Pierre, 353, 354
agriculture, in America, 120–130, 214, 232. See also economic problems
Albany, N.Y., 103, 108
Alexandria, Va., 20, 33, 49, 52, 196
Alien and Sedition acts, 380
Allegheny Mountains, 10, 15, 27, 33, 194, 318
Allen, Ethan, 74
American Daily Advertiser, 350
American Revolution. See Revolution, American
Ames, Fisher, 218, 307
Anderson, James, 363–364
André, John, 142–148; portrait, 144
Annapolis, Md., 178
Annapolis Convention, 199
Aquidneck Island, 94
aristocracy, American, 6, 201, 242–246, 248–249
army: standing, GW’s attitude to, 177–178, 214, 220, 319–320; and Whiskey Rebellion, 316–320, 379; mobilized to combat French threat, 372–382. See also Continental Army
Arnold, Benedict, 74, 108, 141–148, 151–152, 333; portrait, 144
Arnold, Mrs. Benedict (Peggy Shippen), 142–147; portrait, 144
Articles of Confederation, 124, 166, 168, 198, 199, 205; GW’s position on, 177
Ashford, Conn., 229
Assunpink Creek, 96–97
assumption, 234–237, 241, 246
Augusta, Ga., 258
Austria, 256, 273, 276
Baltimore, Md., 92, 99, 100, 196
Bank of Philadelphia, 130
Bank of the United States. See national bank
Barbados, 8
Barbary pirates, 341, 343
Barlow, Joel, 382
Bastille, key to, 256, 276
Beck, George, 366
Beckwith, George, 252
Belvoir (Fairfax mansion), 6, 19–20, 184, 368
Biddle, Clement, 135
Blackstone, William, 205
Blue Ridge Mountains, 7, 27
Board of
War, 114–115
Boston, Mass., 59, 140; GW at, 29, 229; Tea Party, 58; in Revolution, 66, 70–76, 141; map of, 67
bounties. See Continental Army: enlistments and bounties
Braam, Jacob van, 11, 17
Braddock, Edward, 20–27, 32, 33, 253
Bradford, William, 331–333 passim, 340
Brandywine, Battle of, 104
Breed’s Hill. See Bunker Hill
Britain: attitude toward Colonials, 5, 18, 27–30, 73–74, 82; Ohio Valley conflict with French, 10–16, 37; GW’s attitude toward, 32, 50, 57, 167, 290, 372; economic relationship with Virginia and colonies, 44, 49, 253, 352; pre-Revolutionary conflict with colonies, 57–60; belief in American’s loyalty, 73, 82, 92, 94, 98, 102, 103, 119; treatment of Tories, 100; commercial and diplomatic relations with U.S., 194–196, 252–254; frontier and northwest policies (1783–1791), 198, 250–254, 288, 302, 306–307, 312, 318, 352; society, 242–244; American ministers to, 249, 255, 354; maritime conflict with U.S. and war with France, 277–298, 302, 306–307, 312, 327, 344, 353. See also British army; British navy; French and Indian War; Revolution, American
British army: GW’s ambition for career in, 5, 18, 20, 33, 50; attitude toward and treatment of Americans, 5, 18, 27, 29–30, 110, 131, 137, 290; drills and equipment, 20; fighting ability, strategy and technique, 62, 66, 75–76, 90, 97, 108n, 120, 137, 179; reinforcement problem, 66, 75; mercenaries, 73, 75, 79; size, 79, 120, 126; and winter campaigns, 94; weaknesses, 180. See also guerrilla vs. traditional warfare; individual battles and campaigns
British navy, 34; in Revolution, 68, 73, 79, 83, 109, 126, 136, 143, 146, 151–152, 159–160, 163–164; maritime conflict with U.S., 278–284
Brooklyn Heights, N.Y., Battle of, 80–83, 90, 104
Brown, Gustavus Richard, 399–401
Brunswick, N.J., 98
Buchan, Lord, 307, 396
Bullskin Creek, 7
Bunker Hill, Battle of, 64–66, 68–69, 73
Burgoyne, John, 102–104, 107–109, 111, 141–142, 179
Burlington, N.J., 96
Burr, Aaron, 309
Byron, John, 126–127
cabinet (“department heads”), 220, 229, 260, 266–267, 274, 275, 287, 290, 294, 301–302, 325–326, 340–341; original appointments, 222–223; balance, 303–305, 309; GW’s procedure at meetings, 263–264; under President Adams, 374, 377
Cadwallader, John, 115
Cambridge, Mass., 63, 66, 74, 134, 152
Camden, S.C., 258; Battle of, 137
Canada, 10, 34, 78, 101, 108, 127, 141–142, 250, 252, 254, 278, 280, 306, 312, 326
capital of U.S., location of. See Washington, D.C.
capitalism. See financial problems, U.S.
Carleton, Guy, 167
Carlisle, Pa., 319
Carr, Peter, 370–371
Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, 110
Cartagena expedition, 5–6, 379
Cary, Robert, and Co., 44–46
Champlain, Lake, 102, 108
Charleston, S.C., 136, 258–259, 286, 332
Charlestown, Mass., 66, 164
Chase, Thomas, 341
Chastellux, Marquis de, 290
checks and balances. See separation of powers
Cherokee Indians, 253
Chesapeake Bay, 103, 156, 159–160
Chester, Pa., 160
Christopher (GW’s body servant), 402
Cincinnati, Ohio, 253
Cincinnati, Society of the, 201, 322
Civil War, 241, 242, 316
civil war, threat of, 166–174, 262
class conflict, 198, 315; theory, applied to Hamilton-Jefferson feud, 241
Claypole, David, 350
Clinton, George, 259–260, 302
Clinton, Henry, 119, 120, 124, 126, 140, 142, 147, 151, 156, 159–160, 164, 166, 167
Closen, Ludwig von, 140, 157
commerce. See trade
Commercial Treaty, 281–282
Committees of Safety, 293
Common Sense (Paine), 74, 354
communications, 258, 262, 283
Concord, Battle of, 59
confederation, 222, 234, 251; GW on, 198. See also Articles of Confederation
Congress, Continental. See Continental Congress
Congress, U.S., 133, 209, 212–214, 231, 259, 297; GW’s addresses to, 216, 221, 275, 321, 341, 355–356; GW’s relationship with, 221, 234, 237, 252; and bank controversy, 239–240; accused of corruption, 266–267; Genêt records presented to, 294, 302; anti-British measures, 307–308; and Jay Treaty, 326, 327; housing of, GW contributes to, 366. See also House of Representatives; Senate
Connecticut, 83, 134, 198, 229, 290
Consolato del Mare, 278–279, 306, 327
Constitution, U.S.: basic principle, 133; GW’s influence on and attitude toward, 177, 208, 209, 221, 224, 261, 350; ratification, 209–212, 259; Bill of Rights, 213; amendment of, 222, 356n; interpretation, implied or strict, 240; writing of, 255; basis, 303. See also Constitutional Convention
Constitutional Convention: GW and, 177, 201–211, 212, 322; connection with Potomac Canal, 197–199; proceedings, 204–209, 213
Continental Army: disease in, 8, 70, 78, 79, 132; belief in cause, 28, 75, 97; desertion, 28, 82–83; GW appointed Commander in Chief, 60–63; GW takes command, 66; officer corps, 68, 73, 111; size, 68, 79, 92, 117, 120, 131, 132, 139, 149, 160; GW organizes, 68–70; supplies, 69, 70, 71, 100, 109–110, 128–130, 133, 149, 179; enlistments and bounties, 71–73, 85–86, 96, 99, 128, 150–151, 157, 160, 166, 194; GW’s opinion of, 73, 96, 111, 167, 176; northern division, 78, 102, 104, 108–109; artillery, 74, 163; military ineptitude, 75, 80, 83–85, 90, 104; national aspect, 79, 111, 124, 142; self-reliance, 82, 97, 118, 127, 179, 242; foreign volunteers, 101–102, 111–112, 115, 124, 137; condition, 109–110, 149–151, 152, 157; acquires military skills, 118, 123–124; financial difficulties, 128–131, 149–151, 156–157, 166–167; reorganization, 131–132; mutiny, 134, 150–151; defections encouraged by British, 148, 150, 151; dissatisfaction and near-revolt, 166–177, 197–198, 201, 232–235, 237; pensions, 167. See also Board of War; guerrilla vs. traditional warfare; militia
Continental Congress, First: GW as delegate, 58–59; anti-British measures, 59
Continental Congress, Second: commissions GW, 59–62; hopes for compromise with Britain, 60; declares independence, 78–79; relation to war effort and strategy, 77, 83, 85–86, 109–110, 127; relations with GW, 77–78, 99–100, 109–111, 113–117, 150, 170; flees to Baltimore, 92, 100; financial problems, 129, 234; on army pay, 166–169, 176–177; denies promotion to Benedict Arnold, 142; GW returns commission, 178
Continental Congress, Confederation, 200, 201; lack of power, 198
Conway, Thomas, 101, 113, 127, 137, 296; portrait, 112
Conway Cabal, 113–118, 155, 275, 325
Cornwallis, Lord, 96, 97, 104, 136–137, 151, 153, 156–157, 159–164, 179
cotton, 327
Coulon, Joseph, Sieur de Jumonville, 16–18, 24
Councils of War, 73, 101, 113, 120
Craik, James, 32, 376, 399–402
Creek Indians, 221, 252
Cumberland, Fort, 28–29
currency. See money
Custis, Daniel Parke, 43
Custis, Eleanor (“Nelly”) (step-grand-daughter), 185, 379–380
Custis, George Washington Parke (step-grandson), 185, 192, 401
Custis, John Parke (stepson), 42–43, 165
Custis, Martha Parke (“Patsy”) (step-daughter), 42–43, 44
Custis grandchildren, 185, 392, 393
customs duties, 166, 198, 221, 252, 307, 314
Dagworthy, John, 29
Deane, Silas, 59
debt, national, 168–169, 176, 198; Hamilton’s plan for funding and assumption, 232–237, 246, 267
debts, state, to Britain, 253. See also debt, national
Declaration of Independence, 79
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Gibbo
n), 243
Delaware, 199, 208
Delaware River, 92–93, 96, 109, 119, 160; GW’s crossing, 14, 94–95
Democratic Societies, 293–294, 313, 315, 321–323. 334. 335, 341
Democrats, 245n
Denmark, 313
Deux Ponts, Duke de, 160
Dick, Elisha Cullen, 399–401
Dinwiddie, Robert, 10, 14–16, 18, 29, 30, 32, 55
discrimination, 234–235
Dobbs, Ferrv, N.Y., 157
Dorchester Heights, Mass., 74–75
Duportail, Louis le Bèque, 101, 109
Duquesne, Fort, 16, 23–27, 32, 33–35
East River, 77, 78, 80, 83, 86
economic problems: colonial, 57–58; of Constitutional Convention, 204; GW’s prepresidential attitude toward, 213–214; agrarian vs. capitalistic society, 235–236, 241–249, 266, 385–386. See also debt, national; inflation; manufacturing; money; national bank
Electoral College, 213, 214, 270–273 passim
Ellsworth, Oliver, 341
embargo, against Britain, 307, 312
Emerson, William, 68
England. See Britain
Enlightenment, the, 216
enlistments. See Continental Army: enlistments and bounties
Erie Canal, 196
Estaing, Count d’, 124, 126–127, 131, 132, 137
Europe: tired of American Revolution, 149–150; balance of power, 280–281. See also individual countries
Evans, Oliver, 49
executive, the, 205, 208–210, 220–222, 261–263, 291, 308, 312, 345. See also Washington, George: PRESIDENCY
executive departments. See cabinet
Experienced Farmer (Parkinson), 362
Fairfax, Lord, 6–7
Fairfax, George William, 6, 19, 184
Fairfax, Sally, 19–20, 24, 26, 32–33, 41, 184, 368; portrait, 21
Fairfax, William, 6
Fairfax family, 6–7, 10–11, 184
Fairfax Co., Va., 58
Fairfield, Conn., 229
Fallen Timbers, Battle of, 318
Farewell Address, 262, 347–351, 355
Fauchet, Jean Baron, 302, 333–335, 370
Federalist, The, 210, 222, 240
Federalists, 245, 297, 317, 340, 342, 346, 350, 354; anti-French policy, 274, 276, 372; and Genêt affair, 293, 295, 296, 297–298; desire settlement with Britain, 307–309; reaction to Jay Treaty, 330; GW and, 356, 371, 382, 383; win election, 357; and French war threat, army command crisis, 374, 377, 383. See also Republicans
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