by Donald Hunt
Following that event, new rules were adopted so that any member absent without excuse would be counted as present – thus a quorum could always be achieved. Uniformed SA and SS men then took up positions lining the hall, looming over the shoulders of the delegates who were not Nazis. The Enabling Law passed by 444 to 94 and representative democracy in Germany was gone.
The rule of law was now replaced by police terror. The new Enabling Law was quickly implemented by Wilhelm Frick, the Director of the Interior Ministry. On the 7th of April, he issued a decree that affected everyone employed by the civil service and educational system. The decree stated that every individual of non-Aryan origin was to be terminated.
The following month, Goebbels announced that German culture and politics would be united. He created the Reich Cultural Society. Artists, writers and performers would now be required to join the society in order to work, and non-Aryans were excluded from belonging.
Goebbels had an abiding hatred for most of his professors and the publishing houses who had refused to publish his novel Michael. On May 11th, in the largest cities across the country, SA troops and bands of German youth raided libraries for the purpose of destroying books deemed ‘not German’ or ‘tainted by Jews.’ In all, some 200,000 volumes were burned. The bonfire in Berlin was on Unter den Linden between the Opera House and the University. Goebbels later proclaimed the following:
“The age of Jewish intellectualism has now ended, and the success of the German revolution has again given the German spirit the right of way. The past is lying in flames. The future will rise from the flames within our hearts…”
Somewhere in the pile of burning volumes was a book by poet Heinrich Heine who had once observed, “Where ever books are burned….in time, people are burned!”
* * *
Erin Nitschmann had exceeded even her own expectations as a violinist. This was her eighth year of performing with the Berlin Philharmonic, counting her time as an apprentice. She was a rising star in the concert world but still played second chair behind her father who remained concertmaster for the orchestra. Still very close to her family, she was encouraged to pursue her career in the concert world. For this reason, she was spending more time traveling, and had recently returned from a trip to the United States where she performed with the Philadelphia Orchestra.
It had been almost eight months since Erin had seen her best friend and old classmate, Anna Eichenwald. Erin’s travel and Anna’s call schedule had caused the cancellation or postponement of several of their efforts to get together. Finally, a time together was materializing. Erin had arranged for two tickets to hear Arthur Schnabal, who was repeating his earlier performances of the cycle of thirty-two Beethoven Sonatas. This was the fourth in the series…the same series that Erin’s mother Paula had attended several years earlier with her friend Kathe Kollwitz.
Erin and Anna met in the Tiergarten for an early dinner and planned to walk to the Metropel Theater for the concert. It was a beautiful spring evening, rather warm for mid- April. Anna was anxious to hear about Erin’s travel to the U. S.
“Tell me about the trip, all the details…from the beginning!”
Erin covered the travel in detail, beginning with crossing the Atlantic. She described Philadelphia, her hotel, the concert and her host family.
“Anna, I must hear about your job,” she said excitedly. “I can’t wait any longer. Tell me everything!”
“I’ve accepted a position as a surgical instructor in the department starting July 1st. I’ll have primary teaching responsibilities, which I like, and no research, which I don’t like.”
The two talked non-stop and ate very little. In the course of the evening, Erin shared that she had met a young man in Philadelphia.
“Who?” Anna demanded. “And how did you meet?”
Erin explained that David Natanson was the business manager for the Philadelphia Orchestra and his family was her host family. “What is he like, tall…short…how handsome is he?”
Erin smiled and replied, “Well, he is handsome and very funny.”
The time had gotten away from them. On their walk to the concert, Erin shared a concern about her family. Arnold Schoenberg was a professor at the Academy of Music and a longtime friend of her father. He was working on an opera in Paris when he learned that he had been dismissed from the Academy and was told not to return to Germany. Erin also told Anna that her family was seriously considering leaving the country. They believed their positions with the symphony were no longer secure.
“Have you heard about the Reich Cultural Society?” she asked in a low voice. “All writers, artists and performers must belong, but Jews are excluded. If we stay, we will be forced out.”
Anna processed this information as they headed into the concert hall. It was almost more than she was able to digest. She squeezed Erin’s hand as the music began, then both young women, each gifted in their own right, were swept away by the sounds of Schnabal’s performance. It was again, a flawless interpretation of Beethoven’s sonata in E flat, Opus 81A, known as ‘Les Adieux.” It was an appropriate title. After that evening, Schnabal’s performance schedule was abruptly cancelled by the Nazis.
Lise Meitner had always kept quiet about her Jewish heritage. She was not ashamed of it. In fact, as a ‘Hebrew Christian’ she took pride in her Jewish ancestry. But at the same time, she did not feel connected to Jewish tradition. When anti-Semitic sentiments were activated, she kept silent at first. But when Hitler moved to legalize anti-Semitism and abolish the civil rights of German Jews, she felt obligated to discuss the issue with her colleague Otto Hahn. One afternoon in early June, after he had returned from lecturing at Cornell in the U.S., Lise opened the conversation.
“You know, I am really Jewish. I don’t want to be an embarrassment to you.” He took her arm.
“Lise, you could never be an embarrassment to me no matter what happens. This so-called non-Aryan policy will cause many of our colleagues to leave. But I am going to do all in my power so you can stay. You are not just my associate…you are family to me.”
Otto Hahn had become the director of the KWI when Einstein left. He knew only too well what might happen in the next few months. He also realized that political changes were out of his hands. By September, his fears were realized. Fully one-third of the KWI faculty was forced to emigrate. But for reasons that were not clear, nothing had been said to Hanz Eichenwald, and he decided to remain, along with Max Plank, who was not Jewish. Most of the others left, including Edward Teller and Leo Szilard. As for Lise Meitner, she was allowed to remain to do research but was not allowed to lecture at the University. Because she was an Austrian citizen and not German, she was allowed to continue her work with Hahn. She always suspected that he somehow intervened on her behalf. By the end of the year, some 1,600 scholars had left teaching positions in Germany. Several who left the KWI would go on to become Nobel winners.
The members of the ‘physics club’ took care of their own. Niels Bohr turned up in Hamburg. He was traveling throughout Germany to see who needed help. One individual rescued by Bohr was Otto Frisch, the nephew of Lise Meitner. Frisch was an extraordinary scientist with a genius for apparatus design and was working for Otto Stern on a cyclotron design. Stern, shocked to learn that Frisch was Jewish, simply said, “So am I,” and the two left Germany together. Frisch had received a one-year Rockefeller Fellowship. But the fellowship was withdrawn because it was contingent on each scientist having a job at year’s end. The crisis ended when Bohr came to the rescue.
“Come work with us,” he said to Frisch. “We like people who can carry out thoughtful experiments.”
Three months later, tragedy struck the Bohr family. Niels was sailing with his eldest son Christian and two friends. They were on the Oresund, the sea passage between Sweden and Denmark. With little warning a squall blew up placing their sloop in very rough seas. Eighteen-year-old Christ
ian was swept overboard. They circled the area as long as there was light, but the seas remained stormy and the water cold. Lise Meitner received the news by cablegram. When she read it, she sat down and wept. It had been only nine months since her Christmas with the Bohrs. Just as Niels Bohr had felt powerless to help her with the Nazi pogrom, she now felt helpless to alleviate their grief. The next day she sat down to try to express her feelings. She wrote the following words:
“Through deep and rushing waters with my Savior, mid firey flames he walks just at my side;
I’m welcomed and counted in his favor, behind me lies the world and foolish pride.
I feel the Spirit’s breath upon my shoulder, a caring touch to wipe a tear stained face;
He sheds his light to make my faith grow bolder, amazing love to share with me his grace.
Her cable was sent the next day. Bohr retreated for a while into his grief, but found healing in his efforts to help those who had lost their work and homes.
Kathe Kollwitz received a call from her longtime friend, Paula Nitschmann. They had a number of things in common, including a love of music and sons named Peter, both who had fought in the Great War. Many months had gone by since their last visit. Paula asked Kathe if they could meet for lunch.
It was September and the Nitschmanns were busy rehearsing with the Berlin Philharmonic for the fall concert season. The two friends agreed to meet on Saturday at the Romanische Café across from the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church. Paula was a few minutes early and stood to greet Kathe as she walked into the enormous entry hall. They requested an upstairs table for more privacy and began to review some of their times together. The last was a concert, the debut of the 13-year old prodigy, Yehudi Menuhin, playing concerti of Bach, Beethoven and Brahms.
After placing their orders, Paula lowered her voice.
“Kathe, I’m so happy to see you. And I have to tell you that we are leaving Germany next week. Isaac has found a teaching position at the London Conservatory of Music and Erin is going to America to join the Philadelphia Orchestra.”
Kathe looked away briefly.
“Paula, that’s wonderful…when did you decide? And how can I help you?” “Last spring, we could see there was no future for us here. In fact, we know we will be dismissed from the orchestra. It’s just a matter of time. Isaac is excited to be teaching rather than performing. And America will give Erin the opportunity she deserves in the concert world. Our lives will change. We no longer have a country. But we have work and we will be safe.”
Kathe smiled back at Paula.
“You know how much I love you, Paula, and how much I admire you. I will always be grateful for our friendship. I don’t think I could have survived losing my son without your support. I mean that. I will miss you more than you know. As for myself, I’m going to explore how I can get to London in the next year or so. Promise you will write and let me know how you are. I promise I will stay in touch too.”
They finished lunch and said their good-byes. They smiled as they parted. The smiles served to veil the unspoken thoughts of each woman – thoughts that this could be their last time together.
* * *
For most German citizens the early years of Nazi control were orderly and tranquil. By the summer of 1933, there was no organized resistance to the new government. The Communist Party had been outlawed and there were no more street riots. Unemployment was dramatically down as the world began to pull out of the Great Depression. For the first time since the war’s end in 1918, there seemed to be order in the land. Everyday German life was significantly improved, not only financially, but also by the new Nazi program, Kraftdurch Freude - Strength through Joy. It allowed, for the first time, extended holidays of one to two weeks for ordinary citizens. The goal was to improve productivity. The KdF program organized trips to Naples, the Alps, Spain and Norway. It brought large profits to the state railway system as well as rural hotels. This helped the German people to overlook the fact that they had lost their constitutional freedoms. The Enabling Law gave Hitler dictatorial power to run – or ruin - the country. Since the print media was controlled by the Nazis, there was no avenue to challenge his actions. Also, information kept from German citizens was the five year plan to re-build the German ‘war-machine.’ There could be no objection to activities by the government being kept from the people. To the average German, ‘Strength through Joy’ was proof that the Nazi goal of increased prosperity and abolition of class status was working.
But there was a dark side to this new moon. The National Socialists, with their newly acquired power, quickly moved to settle old scores with political opponents and Jews. On the first day of April, a nation-wide boycott of all Jewish businesses was held. This was only the beginning. In May, a prison camp had been opened in the suburb of Munich. It would later be known as Dachau. The concentration camp was located in an old power plant with a capacity of 5,000. Any man considered an enemy of the state could be sent there. Offenders included criminals, gypsies, Jews, homosexuals, and communists. The camp was run by a former mental patient, Theodor Eicke, and quickly evolved into a place of licensed brutality. Minor infractions resulted in solitary confinement. Hanging was the consequence for those who committed acts of major disobedience or those held for political reasons. The ‘rules’ and the consequences for breaking the rules evolved daily, routinely invented by guards. Obedience was impossible.
If and when released, inmates were required to sign a pledge of silence. They were forbidden to discuss prisoner treatment. The penalty was re-incarceration. In spite of the fact that Germans were aware that opposition to the regime resulted in imprisonment, most saw the practice as a means to restore order and voiced no objections.
The following year in April, SA/Storm Troopers numbered some 300,000. They were loyal to their Commander, Ernst Rhom, and a number of high ranking Nazi officials including Heinrich Himmler, Commander of the SS, felt that Rohm had become too powerful. He and others convinced Hitler that Rohm planned to betray him. And in fact, Rhom had aligned himself with Gregor Strasser, the former director of the Berlin segment of the party. Strasser remained a socialist and wanted to lead a workers revolution, something antithetical to the goals of the Nazi party. Hitler’s solution was to turn violent. In early June he ordered a purge. It became known as the ‘Night of Long Knives.’ Rohm was arrested and Hitler ordered that he be given a pistol to end his own life. Rohm refused. “If I am to be killed, let Hitler do it himself.”
Rohm was stripped to the waist and two SS officers emptied their revolvers into his chest. In all, 150 ‘enemies of the state’ were eliminated. Other scores were settled as well. Goring was jealous of the rank and influence of General and former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher, so the retired General and his wife were shot. Finally Gregor Strasser was imprisoned and murdered in jail. Within days, the Reich Minister of the Interior, Wilhelm Frick, framed a law that declared the murders ‘legal.’ Hitler declared the matter closed with the chilling words:
“In this hour I was responsible for the fate of the German people, and therefore I became the Supreme Justice of the German people….Everyone must know that in all future time if he raises his hand to strike at the state, then certain death will be his lot.”
Hitler’s rise to power was one of modern history’s remarkable stories. In 1928, the retiring British Ambassador to Germany finished his memoirs titled…The Diary of an Ambassador. A series of historical notes were added by Maurice Gerothwohl, diplomatic correspondent of the London Daily Telegraph. His footnote about Herr Hitler was as follows:
“Rose to notoriety in 1922 shortly before the Mussolini coup d’etat in Italy…founded the so-called German National Socialist Workmen’s Party. Concentrated on exploiting the Semitic and Bolshevik bogies…in the autumn of 1923 he joined with General von Ludendorff in leading the insurrection in Bavaria, but after a temporary escape, was arrested…he was finally released after six
months and bound over for the rest of his sentence, thereafter fading into oblivion.”
By 1933, millions of Germans believed in Adolph Hitler. History would show him to be semi-literate and incompetent, a man who had failed at everything he had attempted save his time in the military when he was a dispatch runner. He did not possess the skills and intelligence to run a country. But he had an uncanny ability to persuade his country. More than anyone, he believed in his own myth. And he managed to convey his power utterly. On one occasion, when told by an assistant that he was mistaken, Hitler bluntly answered, “I cannot be mistaken…what I do and say is historical.”
Chapter 9
Exodus
By now, Anna had settled nicely into her position. She had lecture assignments for senior medical students and was running the monthly morbidity-mortality conference for the surgical house staff. Anna felt like a bird that had been let out of her cage. She was also pleased that Christian Engel, one of her favorite people and a surgical colleague, had been added to the staff. Still, she remained concerned about the political turmoil surrounding her, and more directly with the upcoming move of her best friend, Erin Nitschmann. They had known each other since they were both seven years old and had started Hebrew school together.
The Nitschmanns were cautiously developing their plans to emigrate. There had already been a one-day boycott of Jewish businesses and a few Jewish men were being detained for reasons that were unclear. But the Nitschmanns had something in their favor; Erin and her parents occasionally traveled to perform outside of Germany. Their passports and travel documents were in order.
