by Oswyn Murray
The defeat in central Greece was not complete: significant damage had been inflicted on the Persian fleet, which was now little if at all superior to the Greeks in numbers. Nevertheless it meant the loss of Boeotia and the evacuation of Athens, which was sacked by the Persians. The final evacuation of Athens exhibits the typical cunning of Themistokles: instead of placing his non-combatants in the Peloponnese behind the relative safety of the Isthmus wall, he chose to keep them out of the hands of the Spartans; for only thus could the Athenians have a decisive and independent voice in the Greek strategy: Aegina, Troezen and Salamis were highly exposed places of refuge, but at least they were outside Spartan control. The Athenian fleet comprised well over half the Greek navy; by keeping it at Salamis, he forced the rest of the fleet to fight there. Similarly it seems that it was his stratagem of a secret message to the Great King which induced the Persians to desist from attempts at blockade (which would surely have been successful) and risk a pitched battle in the narrow waters of the bay of Salamis. Themistokles emerges as that favourite type of popular hero, the Trickster, a historical exemplification of the Greek culture figure Odysseus.
The Greek victory ended the first phase of the war. Half the Persian army withdrew with Xerxes, the rest wintered in north Greece under Mardonios; the Greeks now had control of the sea. The winter was spent in unsuccessful diplomatic attempts to detach the Athenians from the Greek side. In 479 Themistokles finally forced the Peloponnesians to risk their troops north of the Isthmus. The battle of Plataea, with its complicated manoeuvrings, shows the usual Spartan reluctance to fight and a lack of decisive generalship under Pausanias, nephew of Kleomenes and regent for Leonidas’ infant son; but the courage and discipline of the hoplites of Sparta, Tegea and Athens won the day. It is typical of the nature of hoplite warfare that in this greatest of hoplite battles the Greeks lost only 159 men; 3000 Persians were captured, but the majority must have escaped under the protection of the Persian cavalry. On the same day the Greek marines stormed the mainland beaches of Mycale off Samos, and destroyed the Persian fleet. The liberation of Ionia had begun.
The allies commemorated their victory in many monuments; Simonides of Ceos, the creator of the victory ode, who had been patronized in turn by the tyrants of Athens, the aristocrats of Thessaly and the Alkmeonids, found a new role in his old age as author of epigrams for the dead; a major new fragment of his poem on Plataea is about to be published. But the most moving monument is that which stood at Delphi, until it was removed by Constantine the Great to his new capital of Constantinople eight hundred years later, where it still stands in the ancient hippodrome, illegible and unremarked among the splendours of Istanbul. Originally surmounted by a gold tripod, a bronze column of three intertwined serpents is inscribed simply:
THESE FOUGHT IN THE WAR
There follow the names of thirty-one cities.
(Greek Historical Inscriptions no. 27 = 59F)
Myth and reality combine. Politically the Persian Wars created a new race of heroes, who had surpassed the achievements of their ancestors before Troy: the self-confidence of the classical city-state, where man is the measure of all things, was only one step short of arrogance (hybris), as the Greeks themselves knew. In that sense the Persian Wars opened a new epoch. But they also closed an old one. Greek culture had been created from the fruitful interchange between east and west; that debt was now forgotten. An iron curtain had descended: east against west, despotism against liberty – the dichotomies created in the Persian Wars echo through world history, and seem ever more likely to continue, as man revives old ways and discovers new ones for tormenting his soul.
Postscript 1993:
Should I change that last sentence? No: because now, like the Greeks, it is we the victors who are the new persecutors of a once proud empire; and, like the Greeks, we shall in due course reap our reward. The true lesson of history was stated by Herodotus himself:
I shall proceed with my story, telling alike of the small and the great cities of men; for many of those which were once great have become small, and those that were great in my day were formerly small. Therefore in the knowledge that human prosperity nowhere remains constant, I shall recall both alike.
(Herodotus 1.5)
Maps
1. Greece and the Aegean
2. Greeks in the Western Mediterranean
3. Greeks in the North-East and Black Sea Areas
4. The Persian Empire in the Reign of Darius
5. Early Trade Routes, East and West. Overseas distribution of Euboean or related Geometric pottery.
6. Attica: The Divisions of Kleisthenes
1. Trade and warfare
(a) The site of Pithecusae (Ischia);
(b) Bronze armour from the Warrior Grave at Argos;
(c) Corinthian helmet of Miltiades
2. Commemorative pottery
(a) Panathenaic prize vase;
(b) Geometric funerary vase from Athens
3. Miniature sculpture
(a) Ivory Astarte figure from Athens ;
(b) Images of Sparta : the warrior ;
(c) Images of Sparta : the woman
4. Rituals
(a) The sacrifice ;
(b) The symposium
5. Writing and the Law
(a) Constitutional law from Chios ;
(b) Attempts to ostracise Themistokles
6. The international aristocracy
(a) Arkesilas of Cyrene supervising trade ;
(b) Miltiades kalos
7. Monumental sculpture
(a) Kore by Antenor ;
(b) King Darius in audience, Persepolis Treasury
8. The wealth of the West
(a) Victory coin of Syracuse 479 BC ;
(b) Temple of Athena, Paestum
Date Chart
BEFORE 500 BC most of the Greek dates given are more or less approximate; though those which are preceded by an asterisk are likely to derive from chronologically reliable lists, or are certain for other reasons. The majority of eastern dates rest on firm documentary foundations.
PALACE CULTURES
3000 Beginnings of Minoan culture in Crete
2200–1450 Middle Minoan palace culture in Crete
2100 Probable arrival of Mycenean Greeks in Greece
1600–1200 Mycenean palace culture in Greece
1460–1200 Hittite Empire in central Anatolia
1400 Rise of Assyria
THE DARK AGE
1250–1150 Breakdown of settled conditions in eastern Mediterranean
1220 Destruction of Troy VIIa
1200 Destruction of Mycenean centres in Greece
Overthrow of Hittite Empire
Repulse of Peoples of the Sea from Egypt
1150 Final destruction of Mycenae
1000 ? Dorian Invasion
1050–950 Ionian migration; colonization of Asia Minor coast
1050 Beginnings of Iron Age in Greece: renewal of contacts with Cyprus
1050–900 Proto-Geometric Pottery
THE GEOMETRIC AGE
900 onwards The expansion of Assyria, opposed by Urartu and the states of Syria and Palestine
875–750 Geometric Pottery
850–730 Athens the leading cultural centre in Greece
825–750 Decline of Lefkandi and foundation of Eretria
800+ Foundation of trading post at Al Mina
*776 First Olympic Games
775 Foundation of trading post at Pithecusae
753 Traditional date of foundation of Rome
750–700 Invention and diffusion of Greek alphabet
744–612 Assyrian Empire
734–680 Lelantine War
730–10 Spartan conquest of Messenia
*735 Foundation of first Sicilian colony: Naxos
*734 Foundation of Corcyra and Syracuse
720 Sargon of Assyria conquers Cilicia and Syria
*728–700 Catana, Leontini, Megara Hyblaea, Sybaris, Zancle, Tarentum, Croton founded in wes
t
700+ Homer
THE ORIENTALIZING PERIOD
725–700 Early Proto-Corinthian Pottery
700+ Hesiod
Cimmerian invasion from south Russia into Asia Minor; destruction of Phrygian kingdom of Midas
Median monarchy founded
700–650 Middle Proto-Corinthian Pottery
Advent of hoplite tactics
696 Sack of Tarsus by Assyrians
687 Kingdom of Lydia founded by Gyges (687–52)
*683/2 Athenian archon list begins
680–40 Archilochos of Paros
Kallinos of Ephesus
669 Spartans defeated by Argives at battle of Hysiai
660 Byzantium founded
655–585 Tyranny at Corinth under Kypselos and Periandros (625–585)
650+ Chigi vase
Tyranny of Orthagoras of Sicyon
640 Tyranny of Theagenes of Megara
632 Attempted tyranny of Kylon at Athens
630 Foundation of Cyrene
670 onwards: Decline of Assyria
664 Foundation of Saite dynasty in Egypt under Psammetichus I (664–610)
650 Rise of Media under Phraates (650–625)
626 Independence of Babylon under Nabopolassar
612–09 Fall of Nineveh; Assyrian empire divided between Babylon and Media
THE ARCHAIC AGE
630–550 Ripe Corinthian Pottery
621 Drakon lawgiver at Athens
End of seventh century: Tyrtaios and Alkman of Sparta;
Mimnermos of Colophon; Stesichoros of Himera
620–570 Tyranny at Mytilene: Alkaios, Sappho and Pittakos
610 Thrasyboulos tyrant of Miletus
Foundation of Naucratis
610–525 Attic Black Figure Pottery
600 Kleisthenes becomes tyrant of Sicyon
Massalia founded by Phocaeans
597 Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon (605–562)
Exile of the Jews
595 Earliest Greek coins minted by Aegina
595–86 First Sacred War for control of Delphi
*594/3 Solon archon of Athens
*591 Expedition of Psammetichus II of Egypt to Nubia; Abu Simbel inscription
*585 28 May: Eclipse of sun predicted by Thales of Miletus
*582–73 Establishment of international Games circuit: Pythia 582, Isthmia 581, Nemea 573
580 Temple of Artemis at Corcyra: first Greek stone temple
572 Marriage contest of Kleisthenes of Sicyon
About 570: Birth of Anakreon of Teos
569–525 Amasis king of Egypt
*566 Reorganization of Panathenaic festival
561 Peisistratos’ first tyranny at Athens
560–50 Spartan war with Tegea: beginnings of Spartan alliance under Anaxandrides and Ariston (560–520)
560–46 Croesus king of Lydia
550–6 Miltiades the elder becomes tyrant in Thracian Chersonese
559 Cyrus becomes ruler of Persia
556 Birth of Simonides (556–468)
550 Cyrus conquers Media
Battle of Champions between Sparta and Argos
548 Temple of Apollo at Delphi burned
546 Peisistratos’ final tyranny at Athens (546–528)
Cyrus conquers Lydia
545 The year the Mede arrived
Late sixth century: Theognis of Megara, Xenophanes, Pythagoras
539 Cyrus conquers Babylon; return of the Jews from exile
530 Death of Cyrus; accession of Cambyses
530 Attic Red Figure Pottery begins; Late Attic Black Figure 530–450
528/7 Death of Peisistratos; rule of Hippias at Athens
525 Death of Amasis of Egypt; Persian conquest
525–20 Fall of Polykrates tyrant of Samos
521 Darius seizes power in Persia
520–490 Kleomenes king of Sparta
518 Birth of Pindar (518–438)
514 Harmodios and Aristogeiton murder Hipparchos at Athens
512 Darius conquers Thrace
510 Expulsion of Peisistratids from Athens
509 (traditional) Overthrow of monarchy at Rome
*508/7 Isagoras archon at Athens; reforms of Kleisthenes
505 Beginning of tyranny at Gela
*501/500 Institution of ten generals at Athens
End of sixth century: Herakleitos of Miletus
499 Ionian Revolt from Persia
498 Sardis burned by rebels
Earliest poem of Pindar (Pythian 10)
Battle of Sepeia between Sparta and Argos
497 Crushing of revolt in Cyprus
494 Battle of Lade; sack of Miletus
*493/2 Themistokles archon at Athens; Phrynichos prosecuted for play Sack of Miletus
492 Return of Miltiades to Athens and prosecution for tyranny
491 Gelon tyrant of Gela
490 Death of Kleomenes of Sparta
First Persian expedition; battle of Marathon
Early fifth century: Parmenides of Elea
*488 Gelon wins chariot race at Olympia
*487–3 Annual ostracisms at Athens
*487/6 Athenian archons chosen by lot
486 Death of Darius; accession of Xerxes
485 Gelon becomes tyrant of Syracuse
*484 First victory of Aeschylus
490–80 Birth of Herodotus
483 Digging of Athos canal; discovery of new silver vein at Laurion
480 Persian and Carthaginian invasions of Greece and Sicily. Battles of Artemisium, Thermopylae, Salamis and Himera
479 Battles of Platea and Mycale
478 (winter) Delian League against Persia founded under
Athens’ leadership
474 Hieron wins battle of Kyme against Etruscans
*472 The Persians of Aeschylus performed
461 Radical reforms of Ephialtes at Athens
War between Athens and Sparta (First Peloponnesian War 461–446)
449 ‘Peace of Kallias’ traditionally marks the end of the war with Persia and transformation of the Delian League into the Athenian Empire
438 Death of Pindar
Primary Sources
MOST OF THE individual authors are discussed in context in chapter 2; the following list offers brief notes for identification and gives the best or most available reliable translations:
ARISTOTLE (384–22 BC) from the Chalcidice (N. Greece). Philosopher and scientist, pupil of Plato and founder of the Peripatetic school. The literary works published in his lifetime have perished except for fragments; but the larger part of his ‘esoteric’ writings, probably lectures given within the school, have survived to be the most important single influence on western philosophy. The Politics (translated by Sir Ernest Barker, Oxford U.P. 1958; also in Penguin Classics and Loeb Classical Library) is the central text for Greek political and social institutions. The Constitution of the Athenians (trans. P. J. Rhodes (Penguin 1984) is the only surviving example of the 158 constitutions of Greek states compiled by Aristotle or under his direction; it was discovered on papyrus from Egypt in 1890.
ATHENAEUS (about AD 200) of Naucratis in Egypt, compiled from earlier literature a huge ‘dialogue’, the Deipnosophistae (Professors at dinner) containing much information about Greek eating and drinking habits, and quoting a number of lyric poets and other lost works. Parallel text and translation in Loeb Classical Library (Heinemann).
HERODOTUS (480s – 420s BC) of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor. The first and greatest world historian; the second half of my book is essentially a commentary on this masterpiece. Translation in Penguin Classics and elsewhere.
HESIOD (about 700 BC) from Boeotia, the earliest poet to assert his own individuality, wrote Theogony and Works and Days (trans. R. Lattimore, Michigan U.P. 1978) in epic metre: see ch. 6.
HOMER (probably about 700 BC) epic poet and bible of the Greeks. For the question of Homer’s poetic personality see chs. 2–3. The best translations are by R.
Lattimore (Iliad Chicago U.P. 1951. Odyssey Harper 1965). For historical purposes and ease of reference there is an accurate but old-fashioned prose translation by Lang, Leaf and Myers (Iliad Macmillan 1901) and Butcher and Lang (Odyssey Macmillan 1903).
PAUSANIAS (about AD 150) author of a highly competent guide book to Greece, containing much information about early history and monuments. Translated by Peter Levi (Penguin Classics), or in Loeb.
PINDAR (518–438 BC) from Boeotia; lyric poet: see ch. 12. The best translation is by Sir Maurice Bowra in Penguin Classics.
PLUTARCH (about AD 50–120s) from Boeotia, eclectic philosopher, essayist and biographer. His ‘moral essays’ contain much antiquarian information; his lives of Lykourgos, Solon and Themistokles are fun but scarcely history. There is a complete translation in Loeb, selections in Penguin Classics.
STRABO (64 BC–AD 20s) from Pontus in Turkey: his Geography in 17 books, covering the known world, survives; translation in Loeb.
