149. Elizabeth Dwoskin, “Lending Startups Look at Borrowers’ Phone Usage to Assess Creditworthiness,” Wall Street Journal, December 1, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/lending-startups-look-at-borrowers-phone-usage-to-assess-creditworthiness-1448933308.
150. Daniel Bjorkegren and Darrell Grissen, “Behavior Revealed in Mobile Phone Usage Predicts Loan Repayment” (SSRN scholarly paper, Social Science Research Network, July 13, 2015), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract =2611775.
151. See Dwoskin, “Lending Startups Look at Borrowers’ Phone Usage.”
152. Dwoskin.
153. See Caitlin Dewey, “Creepy Startup Will Help Landlords, Employers and Online Dates Strip-Mine Intimate Data from Your Facebook Page,” Washington Post, June 9, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/06/09/creepy-startup-will-help-landlords-employers-and-online-dates-strip-mine-intimate-data-from-your-facebook-page.
154. Frank Pasquale, “The Dark Market for Personal Data,” New York Times, October 16, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/17/opinion/the-dark-market-for-personal-data.html.
155. “hiQ Labs—Home,” hiQ Labs, August 26, 2017, https://www.hiqlabs.com.
156. Christopher Ingraham, “Analysis: Politics Really Is Ruining Thanksgiving, According to Data from 10 Million Cellphones,” Washington Post, November 15, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/11/15/politics-really-is-ruining-thanksgiving-according-to-data-from-10-million-cellphones. For the research working paper, see M. Keith Chen and Ryne Rohla, “Politics Gets Personal: Effects of Political Partisanship and Advertising on Family Ties,” ArXiv:1711.10602 [Economics], November 28, 2017, http://arxiv.org/abs/1711.10602.
CHAPTER SIX
1. Matthew Restall, Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 19.
2. See Felipe Fernández-Armesto, 1492: The Year the World Began (New York: HarperOne, 2010), 196.
3. John R. Searle, Making the Social World: The Structure of Human Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 85–86.
4. Searle, Making the Social World, 13.
5. Restall, Seven Myths, 65.
6. Restall, 19.
7. For a fascinating analysis of the Requirimiento, see Paja Faudree, “How to Say Things with Wars: Performativity and Discursive Rupture in the Requerimiento of the Spanish Conquest,” Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 22, no. 3 (2012): 182–200.
8. Bartolomé de las Casas, A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies (Penguin Classics), Kindle 334–38.
9. de las Casas, A Brief Account, 329–33.
10. David Hart, “On the Origins of Google,” National Science Foundation, August 17, 2004, http://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100 660&org=NSF.
11. Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen, The New Digital Age: Transforming Nations, Businesses, and Our Lives (New York: Vintage, 2014), 9–10.
12. Mark Muro et al., “Digitalization and the American Workforce,” Metropolitan Policy Program, Brookings Institution, November 15, 2017, https://www.brookings.edu/research/digitalization-and-the-american-workforce. As the report observes,
In 2002, a one-point increase in digitalization score predicted a $166.20 (in 2016 dollars) increase in real annual average wages for occupations with the same education requirements. By 2016 this wage premium had almost doubled to $292.80. In sum, workers with superior digital skills are more and more earning higher wages (all other things being equal) than similarly educated workers with fewer digital skills.… Thus, a sizable portion of the nation’s critical middle-skill employment now requires dexterity with basic IT tools, standard health monitoring technology, computer numerical control equipment, basic enterprise management software, customer relationship management software like Salesforce or SAP, or spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Excel.… In sum, tens of millions of jobs that provide the best routes toward economic inclusion for workers without a college degree turn out to be less and less accessible to workers who lack basic digital skills. (23–24, 33)
13. Philipp Brandes, Roger Wattenhofer, and Stefan Schmid, “Which Tasks of a Job Are Susceptible to Computerization?” Bulletin of EATCS 3, no. 120 (2016), http://bulletin.eatcs.org/index.php/beatcs/article/view/467; Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne, “The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 114 (September 17, 2013): 254–80; Seth G. Benzell et al., “Robots Are Us: Some Economics of Human Replacement” (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2015), http://www.nber.org/papers/w20941; Carl Benedikt Frey, “Doing Capitalism in the Digital Age,” Financial Times, October 1, 2014, https://www.ft.com/content/293780fc-4245-11e4-9818-00144feabdc0.
14. Frey and Osborne, “The Future of Employment”; Martin Krzywdzinski, “Automation, Skill Requirements and Labour-Use Strategies: High-Wage and Low-Wage Approaches to High-Tech Manufacturing in the Automotive Industry,” New Technology, Work and Employment 32, no. 3 (2017): 247–67, https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12100; Frey, “Doing Capitalism”; William Lazonick, “Labor in the Twenty-First Century: The Top 0.1% and the Disappearing Middle-Class” (working paper, Institute for New Economic Thinking, February 2015), https://www.ineteconomics.org/research/research-papers/labor-in-the-twenty-first-century-the-top-0-1-and-the-disappearing-middle-class; Dirk Antonczyk, Thomas DeLeire, and Bernd Fitzenberger, “Polarization and Rising Wage Inequality: Comparing the U.S. and Germany” (IZA Discussion Paper, Institute for the Study of Labor, March 2010), https://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4842.html; Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies (New York: W. W. Norton, 2016); Daron Acemoglu and David Autor, “What Does Human Capital Do? A Review of Goldin and Katz’s ‘The Race Between Education and Technology,’” Journal of Economic Literature 50, no. 2 (2012): 426–63; Sang Yoon Lee and Yongseok Shin, “Horizontal and Vertical Polarization: Task-Specific Technological Change in a Multi-Sector Economy” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, March 1, 2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2941261.
15. Kathleen Thelen, Varieties of Liberalization and the New Politics of Social Solidarity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Olivier Giovannoni, “What Do We Know About the Labor Share and the Profit Share? Part III: Measures and Structural Factors” (working paper, Levy Economics Institute at Bard College, 2014), http://www.levyinstitute.org/publications/what-do-we-know-about-the-labor-share-and-the-profit-share-part-3-measures-and-structural-factors; Francisco Rodriguez and Arjun Jayadev, “The Declining Labor Share of Income,” Journal of Globalization and Development 3, no. 2 (2013): 1–18; Antonczyk, DeLeire, and Fitzenberger, “Polarization and Rising Wage Inequality”; Duane Swank, “The Political Sources of Labor Market Dualism in Postindustrial Democracies, 1975–2011” (American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Chicago: Social Science Research Network, 2013), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2299566; David Jacobs and Lindsey Myers, “Union Strength, Neoliberalism, and Inequality: Contingent Political Analyses of US Income Differences Since 1950,” American Sociological Review 79 (2014): 752–74; Viki Nellas and Elisabetta Olivieri, “The Change of Job Opportunities: The Role of Computerization and Institutions” (Quaderni DSE Working Paper, University of Bologna & Bank of Italy, 2012), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1983214; Ian Gough, Anis Ahmad Dani, and Harjan de Haan, “European Welfare States: Explanations and Lessons for Developing Countries,” in Inclusive States: Social Policies and Structural Inequalities (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008).
16. Martin R. Gillings, Martin Hilbert, and Darrell J. Kemp, “Information in the Biosphere: Biological and Digital Worlds,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 31, no. 3 (2016).
17. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1964), 41.
18. Durkheim, The Division of Labor, 60–61.
19. Harvard legal scholar John Palfrey observed the “read-on
ly” nature of electronic surveillance in his wonderful 2008 essay, “The Public and the Private at the United States Border with Cyberspace,” Mississippi Law Journal 78 (2008): 241–94, especially 249.
20. Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 60–61.
21. Martin Hilbert, “Toward a Synthesis of Cognitive Biases: How Noisy Information Processing Can Bias Human Decision Making,” Psychological Bulletin 138, no. 2 (2012): 211–37, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025940; Martin Hilbert, “Big Data for Development: From Information-to Knowledge Societies” (United Nations ECLAC Report, Social Science Research Network, 2013), 4, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2205145; Viktor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2013), 9.
22. Hilbert, “Toward a Synthesis of Cognitive Biases.”
23. Paul Borker, “What Is Hyperscale?” Digital Realty, February 2, 2018, https://www.digitalrealty.com/blog/what-is-hyperscale; Paul McNamara, “What Is Hyperscale and Why Is It so Important to Enterprises?” http://cloudblog.ericsson.com/digital-services/what-is-hyperscale-and-why-is-it-so-important-to-enterprises; James Manyika and Michael Chui, “Digital Era Brings Hyperscale Challenges,” Financial Times, August 13, 2014, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/f30051b2-1e36-11e4-bb68-00144feabdc0.html?siteedition=intl#axzz3JjXPNno5; Cade Metz, “Building an AI Chip Saved Google from Building a Dozen New Data Centers,” Wired, April 5, 2017, https://www.wired.com/2017/04/building-ai-chip-saved-google-building-dozen-new-data-centers.
24. Smaller firms without hyperscale revenues can leverage some of these capabilities with cloud computing services.
25. Catherine Dong, “The Evolution of Machine Learning,” TechCrunch, August 8, 2017, http://social.techcrunch.com/2017/08/08/the-evolution-of-machine-learning; Metz, “Building an AI Chip”; “Google Data Center FAQ,” Data Center Knowledge, March 16, 2017, http://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2017/03/16/google-data-center-faq.
26. ARK Investment Management, “Google: The Full Stack AI Company,” Seeking Alpha, May 25, 2017, https://seekingalpha.com/article/4076671-google-full-stack-ai-company; Alon Halevy, Peter Norvig, and Fernando Pereira, “The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Data,” Intelligent Systems, IEEE 24 (2009): 8–12, https://doi.org/10.1109/MIS.2009.36.
27. See Tom Krazit, “Google’s Urs Hölzle Still Thinks Its Cloud Revenue Will Catch Its Ad Revenue, but Maybe Not by 2020,” GeekWire, November 15, 2017, https://www.geekwire.com/2017/googles-urs-holzle-still-thinks-cloud-revenue-will-catch-ad-revenue-maybe-not-2020.
28. Norm Jouppi, “Google Supercharges Machine Learning Tasks with TPU Custom Chip,” Google Cloud Platform Blog, May 18, 2016, https://cloud platform.googleblog.com/2016/05/Google-supercharges-machine-learning-tasks-with-custom-chip.html; Jeff Dean and Urs Hölzle, “Build and Train Machine Learning Models on Our New Google Cloud TPUs,” Google, May 17, 2017, https://blog.google/topics/google-cloud/google-cloud-offer-tpus-machine-learning; Yevgeniy Sverdlik, “Google Ramped Up Data Center Spend in 2016,” Data Center Knowledge, February 1, 2017, http://www.data centerknowledge.com/archives/2017/02/01/google-ramped-data-center-spend-2016; Courtney Flatt, “Google’s All-Renewable Energy Plan to Include Data Center in Oregon,” Oregon Public Broadcasting, December 6, 2016, http://www.opb.org/news/article/google-says-it-will-consume-only-renewable-energy.
29. Michael Feldman, “Market for Artificial Intelligence Projected to Hit $36 Billion by 2025,” Top500, August 30, 2016, https://www.top500.org/news/market-for-artificial-intelligence-projected-to-hit-36-billion-by-2025.
30. Kevin McLaughlin and Mike Sullivan, “Google’s Relentless AI Appetite,” Information, January 10, 2017, https://www.theinformation.com/googles-relentless-ai-appetite.
31. Cade Metz, “Tech Giants Are Paying Huge Salaries for Scarce A.I. Talent,” New York Times, October 22, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/technology/artificial-intelligence-experts-salaries.html; “Artificial Intelligence Is the New Black,” Paysa Blog, April 18, 2017, https://www.paysa.com/blog/2017/04/17/artificial-intelligence-is-the-new-black.
32. Ian Sample, “Big Tech Firms’ AI Hiring Frenzy Leads to Brain Drain at UK Universities,” Guardian, November 2, 2017, http://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/nov/02/big-tech-firms-google-ai-hiring-frenzy-brain-drain-uk-universities.
33. Pedro Domingos, The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World (New York: Basic, 2015), 12–13; Cade Metz, “Why A.I. Researchers at Google Got Desks Next to the Boss,” New York Times, February 19, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/19/technology/ai-researchers-desks-boss.html.
34. Spiros Simitis, “Reviewing Privacy in an Information Society,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 135, no. 3 (1987): 710, https://doi.org/10.2307/3312079.
35. Paul M. Schwartz, “The Computer in German and American Constitutional Law: Towards an American Right of Informational Self-Determination,” American Journal of Comparative Law 37 (1989): 676.
CHAPTER SEVEN
1. Chris Matyszczyk, “The Internet Will Vanish, Says Google’s Eric Schmidt,” CNET, January 22, 2015, http://www.cnet.com/news/the-internet-will-vanish-says-googles-schmidt.
2. Mark Weiser, “The Computer for the 21st Century,” Scientific American, September 1991.
3. Mark Weiser and John Seely Brown, “The Coming Age of Calm Technology,” in Beyond Calculation (New York: Springer, 1997), 75–85, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-0685-9_6; Weiser, “The Computer for the 21st Century.”
4. Janina Bartje, “IoT Analytics the Top 10 IoT Application Areas—Based on Real IoT Projects,” IOT Analytics, August 16, 2016, https://iot-analytics.com/top-10-iot-project-application-areas-q3-2016.
5. Kevin D. Werbach and Nicolas Cornell, “Contracts Ex Machina” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, March 18, 2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2936294.
6. Christy Pettey, “Treating Information as an Asset,” Smarter with Gartner, February 17, 2016, www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/treating-informa tion-as-an-asset (italics mine).
7. R. Stuart MacKay, “Bio-medical Telemetry: Sensing and Transmitting Biological Information from Animals and Man,” Quarterly Review of Biology 44, no. 4 (1969): 18–23.
8. MacKay, “Bio-medical Telemetry.”
9. MacKay.
10. Roland Kays et al., “Terrestrial Animal Tracking as an Eye on Life and Planet,” Science 348, no. 6240 (2015), https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa2478.
11. P. Ramesh Kumar, Ch. Srikanth, and K. L. Sailaja, “Location Identification of the Individual Based on Image Metadata,” Procedia Computer Science 85 (2016): 451–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2016.05.191; Anuradha Vishwakarma et al., “GPS and RFID Based Intelligent Bus Tracking and Management System,” International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 3, no. 3 (2016); Nirali Panchal, “GPS Based Vehicle Tracking System and Using Analytics to Improve the Performance,” ResearchGate, June 2016, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304129283_GPS_Based_Vehicle_Tracking_System_and_Using_Analytics_to_Improve_The_Performance.
12. Mark Prigg, “Software That Can Track People as They Walk from Camera to Camera,” Mail Online, November 18, 2014, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2838633/Software-track-people-walk-camera-camera-say-tracked-Boston-bombers-hours.html.
13. Joseph A. Paradiso, “Our Extended Sensoria: How Humans Will Connect with the Internet of Things,” MIT Technology Review, August 1, 2017, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608566/our-extended-sensoria-how-humans-will-connect-with-the-internet-of-things.
14. Gershon Dublon and Edwina Portocarrerro, “ListenTree: Audio-Haptic Display in the Natural Environment,” 2014, https://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/52083.
15. Gershon Dublon et al., “DoppelLab: Tools for Exploring and Harnessing Multimodal Sensor Network Data,” in IEEE Sensors Proceedings, 2011, 1612–15, http://dspace.mit.
edu/handle/1721.1/80402.
16. Gershon Dublon and Joseph A. Paradiso, “Extra Sensory Perception,” Scientific American, June 17, 2014.
17. Paradiso, “Our Extended Sensoria” (italics mine).
18. Dublon and Paradiso, “Extra Sensory Perception.”
19. Kevin Ashton, a former Procter and Gamble brand manager who pioneered the marriage of radio-enabled microchips and physical products, birthed the term “internet of things,” and helped drive RFID innovation at MIT’s Media Lab, criticizes the US government for its lack of a comprehensive vision for the “internet of things” and the leadership of private firms in this domain. See Kevin Ashton, “America Last?” Politico, June 29, 2015, http://www.politico.com/agenda/story/2015/06/kevin-ashton-internet-of-things-in-the-us-000102.
20. See Nick Statt, “What the Volkswagen Scandal Means for the Future of Connected Devices,” Verge, October 21, 2015, http://www.theverge.com/2015/10/21/9556153/internet-of-things-privacy-paranoia-data-volkswagen-scandal.
21. Matt Weinberger, “Companies Stand to Make a Lot of Money Selling Data from Smart Devices, Says Microsoft,” Business Insider, December 6, 2015, http://www.businessinsider.com/microsoft-azure-internet-of-things-boss-sam-george-interview-2015-12; “Live on a Screen Near You: IoT Slam, a New Virtual Conference for All Things IoT,” Microsoft IoT Blog, December 9, 2015, https://blogs.microsoft.com/iot/2015/12/09/live-on-a-screen-near-you-iot-slam-a-new-virtual-conference-for-all-things-iot.
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