27. Hazim Almuhimedi et al., “Your Location Has Been Shared 5,398 Times! A Field Study on Mobile App Privacy Nudging,” in Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI ’15 (New York: ACM, 2015), 787–96, https://doi.org/10.1145/2702123.2702210.
28. Tim Moynihan, “Apps Snoop on Your Location Way More Than You Think,” Wired, March 25, 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/03/apps-snoop-loca tion-way-think.
29. Byron Spice, “Study Shows People Act to Protect Privacy When Told How Often Phone Apps Share Personal Information,” Carnegie Mellon University News, March 23, 2015, https://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2015/march/privacy-nudge.html.
30. Russell Brandom, “Police Are Filing Warrants for Android’s Vast Store of Location Data,” Verge, June 1, 2016, http://www.theverge.com/2016/6/1/11824118/google-android-location-data-police-warrants.
31. Keith Collins, “Google Collects Android Users’ Locations Even When Location Services Are Disabled,” Quartz, November 21, 2017, https://qz.com/1131515/google-collects-android-users-locations-even-when-location-services-are-disabled.
32. Gerard Sans, “Your Timeline: Revisiting the World That You’ve Explored,” Google Lat Long, July 21, 2015, https://maps.googleblog.com/2015/07/your-timeline-revisiting-world-that.html; Nathan Ingraham, “Google Knows Where You’ve Been, and Your Timeline for Maps Shows You,” Verge, July 21, 2015, http://www.theverge.com/2015/7/21/9012035/google-your-timeline-location-history.
33. Here are just a few examples of the de-anonymization literature. In 1997 data privacy researcher Latanya Sweeney famously demonstrated that using publicly available population registers (e.g., a voter list), she could identify the medical records of Massachusetts Governor William Weld from medical information that had already been stripped of all explicit identifiers, such as name, address, and Social Security number. See Latanya Sweeney, “Statement of Latanya Sweeney, PhD Before the Privacy and Integrity Advisory Committee of the Department of Homeland Security—‘Privacy Technologies for Homeland Security,’” US Department of Homeland Security, June 15, 2005, https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/privacy/privacy_advcom_06-2005_testimony_sweeney.pdf; Latanya Sweeney, “Only You, Your Doctor, and Many Others May Know,” Technology Science, September 29, 2015, https://techscience.org/a/2015092903; Latanya Sweeney, “Matching a Person to a Social Security Number,” Data Privacy Lab, October 13, 2017, https://dataprivacylab.org/dataprivacy/projects/ssnwatch/index.html; Sean Hooley and Latanya Sweeney, “Survey of Publicly Available State Health Databases—Data Privacy Lab, IQSS,” Harvard University, 2013; Yves-Alexandre de Montjoye et al., “Unique in the Shopping Mall: On the Reidentifiability of Credit Card Metadata,” Science 347, no. 6221 (2015): 536–39, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1256297; Jessica Su, Ansh Shukla, Sharad Goel, and Arvind Narayanan, “De-Anonymizing Web Browsing Data with Social Networks,” in 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Pages (Perth, Australia: ACM, 2017), 1261–69, https://doi.org/10.1145/3038912.3052714.
34. Paul Ohm, “Broken Promises of Privacy: Responding to the Surprising Failure of Anonymization,” UCLA Law Review 57 (August 2010): 1701.
35. de Montjoye et al., “Unique in the Shopping Mall.” See also Yves-Alexandre de Montjoye, “Computational Privacy: Towards Privacy-Conscientious Uses of Metadata,” Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2015, http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/101850; Nicholas D. Lane et al., “On the Feasibility of User De-Anonymization from Shared Mobile Sensor Data,” in Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Sensing Applications on Mobile Phones: PhoneSense ’12, 2012, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2389148.
36. Christina DesMarais, “This Smartphone Tracking Tech Will Give You the Creeps,” PCWorld, May 22, 2012, http://www.pcworld.com/article/255802/new_ways_to_track_you_via_your_mobile_devices_big_brother_or_good_business_.html. See also “Smartphones—Diagram of Sensors,” Broadcom.com, February 22, 2018, https://www.broadcom.com/applications/wireless/smart-phones.
37. Arvind Narayanan and Edward W. Felten, “No Silver Bullet: De-identification Still Doesn’t Work,” July 9, 2014, http://randomwalker.info/publications/no-silver-bullet-de-identification.pdf.
38. Hal Hodson, “Baidu Uses Millions of Users’ Location Data to Make Predictions,” New Scientist, July 20, 2016, https://www.newscientist.com/article/2098206-baidu-uses-millions-of-users-location-data-to-make-predic tions.
39. In 2015, 29.5 million US adults used wearable devices—mostly fitness trackers like Under Armour’s and smart watches—representing an increase of 57.7 percent over 2014. See Mary Ellen Berglund, Julia Duvall, and Lucy E. Dunne, “A Survey of the Historical Scope and Current Trends of Wearable Technology Applications,” in Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers, ISWC ’16 (New York: ACM, 2016), 40–43, https://doi.org/10.1145/2971763.2971796; Kate Kaye, “FTC: Fitness Apps Can Help You Shred Calories—and Privacy,” Advertising Age, May 7, 2014, http://adage.com/article/privacy-and-regulation/ftc-signals-focus-health-fitness-data-privacy/293080.
40. Michelle De Mooy and Shelten Yuen, “Towards Privacy-Aware Research and Development in Wearable Health,” Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 2017 (HICSS-50), January 4, 2017, http://aisel.aisnet.org/hicss-50/hc/security_for_healthcare/4.
41. Sarah Perez, “Google and Levi’s ‘Connected’ Jacket That Lets You Answer Calls, Use Maps and More Is Going on Sale,” TechCrunch, September 25, 2017, http://social.techcrunch.com/2017/09/25/google-and-levis-connected-jacket-that-lets-you-answer-calls-use-maps-and-more-goes-on-sale.
42. Just a few illustrations from recent literature include Ya-Li Zheng et al., “Unobtrusive Sensing and Wearable Devices for Health Informatics,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 61, no. 5 (2014): 1538–54, https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2014.2309951; Claire Furino et al., “Synthetic Skin-Like Sensing in Wearable Garments,” Rutgers Governor’s School of Engineering and Technology Research Journal, July 16, 2016, http://www.soe.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/imce/pdfs/gset-2016/synth%20skin.pdf; Preeti Kumari, Lini Mathew, and Poonam Syal, “Increasing Trend of Wearables and Multimodal Interface for Human Activity Monitoring: A Review,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics 90, Supplement C (April 15, 2017): 298–307, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.12.001; Arpan Pal, Arijit Mukherjee, and Swarnava Dey, “Future of Healthcare—Sensor Data-Driven Prognosis,” in Wireless World in 2050 and Beyond: A Window into the Future! Springer Series in Wireless Technology (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2016), 93–109, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42141-4_9.
43. “Ovum Report: The Future of E-Commerce—the Road to 2026,” Criteo, 2015, http://www.criteo.com/resources/ovum-future-ecommerce.
44. C. S. Pattichis et al., “Wireless Telemedicine Systems: An Overview,” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine 44, no. 2 (2002): 143–53.
45. A. Solanas et al., “Smart Health: A Context-Aware Health Paradigm Within Smart Cities,” IEEE Communications Magazine 52, no. 8 (2014): 74–81, https://doi.org/10.1109/MCOM.2014.6871673.
46. Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay, “Wearable Sensors for Human Activity Monitoring: A Review,” IEEE Sensors Journal 15, no. 3 (2015): 1321–30, https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2014.2370945; Stephen S. Intille, Jonathan Lester, James F. Sallis, and Glen Duncan, “New Horizons in Sensor Development,” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 44 (January 2012): S24–31, https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182399c7d; P. Castillejo, J. F. Martínez, J. Rodríguez-Molina, and A. Cuerva, “Integration of Wearable Devices in a Wireless Sensor Network for an E-health Application,” IEEE Wireless Communications 20, no. 4 (2013): 38–49; J. Cheng, O. Amft, G. Bahle, and P. Lukowicz, “Designing Sensitive Wearable Capacitive Sensors for Activity Recognition,” IEEE Sensors Journal 13, no. 10 (2013): 3935–47; D. De Rossi and P. Veltink, “Wearable Technology for Biomechanics: E-Textile or Micromechanical Sensors?” IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine, May 20, 2010, 37–43.
47. In 2012 Pew Research reported that 53 percent of Ameri
cans owned smartphones and, of those, 20 percent had downloaded at least one health-related app. By 2015, a national survey found that 71 percent of Americans owned a smartphone or other wireless device and, of those, 32 percent had downloaded at least one health-related app, fulfilling “the public’s desire for ‘anywhere, anytime’ monitoring, diagnosis, and treatment.” See Susannah Fox and Maeve Duggan, “Mobile Health 2012,” Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech, November 8, 2012, http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/11/08/mobile-health-2012; Mark Brohan, “Mobile Will Be a Top Health Industry Trend in 2016,” MobileStrategies360, December 11, 2015, https://web-beta.archive.org/web/20160403231014/https://www.mobilestrategies360.com/2015/12/11/mobile-will-be-top-health-industry-trend-2016. Forbes reported on the excitement with which industry met this news: “Big pharm companies are launching hundreds of mobile apps… while corporations take extra mobile strides to keep employees’ health insurance costs down.…” See Jennifer Elias, “In 2016, Users Will Trust Health Apps More Than Their Doctors,” Forbes, December 31, 2015, http://www.forbes.com/sites/jenniferelias/2015/12/31/in-2016-users-will-trust-health-apps-more-than-their-doctors.
48. Gabrielle Addonizio, “The Privacy Risks Surrounding Consumer Health and Fitness Apps with HIPAA’s Limitations and the FTC’s Guidance,” Health Law Outlook 9, no. 1 (2016), http://scholarship.shu.edu/health-law-outlook/vol9/iss1/1.
49. “Mobile Health App Developers: FTC Best Practices,” Federal Trade Commission, April 2016, https://www.ftc.gov/tips-advice/business-center/guidance/mobile-health-app-developers-ftc-best-practices; “Mobile Privacy Disclosures: Building Trust Through Transparency,” Federal Trade Commission, February 2013, https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/mobile-privacy-disclosures-building-trust-through-transparency-federal-trade-commission-staff-report/130201mobileprivacyreport.pdf; Harrison Kaminsky, “FDA States It Will Not Regulate Fitness Trackers and Wellness Apps,” Digital Trends, July 31, 2016, http://www.digitaltrends.com/health-fitness/fda-will-not-regulate-fitness-wellness-apps.
50. Tobias Dehling et al., “Exploring the Far Side of Mobile Health: Information Security and Privacy of Mobile Health Apps on iOS and Android,” JMIR MHealth and UHealth 3, no. 1 (2015): 1–26, https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.3672. In 2013 an analysis by the Privacy Rights Clearinghouse evaluated a range of health and fitness apps according to their level of privacy risk, including the expropriation of personal information, the sensitivity of that information, and its degree of dissemination. See “Mobile Health and Fitness Apps: What Are the Privacy Risks?” Privacy Rights Clearinghouse, July 1, 2013, https://www.privacyrights.org/consumer-guides/mobile-health-and-fitness-apps-what-are-privacy-risks; Bruno M. Silva et al., “A Data Encryption Solution for Mobile Health Apps in Cooperation Environments,” Journal of Medical Internet Research 15, no. 4 (2013): e66, https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.2498; Miloslava Plachkinova, Steven Andres, and Samir Chatterjee, “A Taxonomy of MHealth Apps—Security and Privacy Concerns,” 48th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2015, 3187–96, https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2015.385; Soumitra S. Bhuyan et al., “Privacy and Security Issues in Mobile Health: Current Research and Future Directions,” Health Policy and Technology, January 2017, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hlpt.2017.01.004; Borja Martínez-Pérez, Isabel de la Torre-Díez, and Miguel López-Coronado, “Privacy and Security in Mobile Health Apps: A Review and Recommendations,” Journal of Medical Systems 39, no. 1 (2015), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10916-014-0181-3.
51. Andrew Hilts, Christopher Parsons, and Jeffrey Knockel, “Every Step You Fake: A Comparative Analysis of Fitness Tracker Privacy and Security,” Open Effect, 2016, https://openeffect.ca/fitness-trackers.
52. Sarah R. Blenner et al., “Privacy Policies of Android Diabetes Apps and Sharing of Health Information,” JAMA 315, no. 10 (2016): 1051–52, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.19426 (italics mine).
53. Erin Marine, “Biometric Privacy Laws: Illinois and the Fight Against Intrusive Tech,” Fordham Law School, March 29, 2018, https://news.law.fordham.edu/jcfl/2018/03/20/biometric-privacy-laws-illinois-and-the-fight-against-intru sive-tech.
54. Jared Bennett, “Saving Face: Facebook Wants Access Without Limits,” Center for Public Integrity, July 31, 2017, https://www.publicintegrity.org/2017/07/31/21027/saving-face-facebook-wants-access-without-limits.
55. Allan Holmes and Jared Bennett,“Why Mark Zuckerberg’s Senate Hearing Could Mean Little for Facebook’s Privacy Reform,” Center for Public Integrity, April 10, 2018, https://www.publicintegrity.org/2018/04/10/21665/why-mark-zuckerbergs-senate-hearing-could-mean-little-facebooks-privacy-reform.
56. Bennett, “Saving Face.”
57. Yaniv Taigman et al., “DeepFace: Closing the Gap to Human-Level Performance in Face Verification,” Facebook Research, April 14, 2018, https://research.fb.com/publications/deepface-closing-the-gap-to-human-level-performance-in-face-verification.
58. Aviva Rutkin, “Facebook Can Recognise You in Photos Even If You’re Not Looking,” New Scientist, April 14, 2018, https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn27761-facebook-can-recognise-you-in-photos-even-if-youre-not-looking.
59. Bennett, “Saving Face,” 13; April Glaser, “Facebook Is Using an ‘NRA Approach’ to Defend Its Creepy Facial Recognition Programs,” Slate, August 4, 2017, http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2017/08/04/facebook_is_fighting_biometric_facial_recognition_privacy_laws.html; Kartikay Mehrotra, “Tech Companies Are Pushing Back Against Biometric Privacy Laws,” Bloomberg.com, July 20, 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-07-20/tech-companies-are-pushing-back-against-biometric-privacy-laws; Ally Marotti, “Proposed Changes to Illinois’ Biometric Law Concern Privacy Advocates,” Chicago Tribune, April 13, 2018, http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-biz-illinois-biometrics-bills-20180409-story.html.
60. Kashmir Hill, “You’re Being Secretly Tracked with Facial Recognition, Even in Church,” Splinter, April 14, 2018, https://splinternews.com/youre-being-secretly-tracked-with-facial-recognition-e-1793848585; Robinson Meyer, “Who Owns Your Face?” Atlantic, July 2, 2015.
61. “Privacy Best Practice Recommendations for Commercial Facial Recognition Use,” NTIA, https://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/privacy_best_practices_recommendations_for_commercial_use_of_facial_recogntion.pdf.
62. Alvaro Bedoya et al., “Statement on NTIA Privacy Best Practice Recommendations for Commercial Facial Recognition Use,” Consumer Federation of America, April 14, 2018, https://consumerfed.org/press_release/statement-ntia-privacy-best-practice-recommendations-commercial-facial-recognition-use.
CHAPTER NINE
1. Satya Nadella et al., “Satya Nadella: Microsoft Ignite 2016,” September 26, 2016, https://news.microsoft.com/speeches/satya-nadella-microsoft-ignite-2016.
2. Hal R. Varian, “Beyond Big Data,” Business Economics 49, no. 1 (2014): 28–29.
3. Neil McKendrick, “The Consumer Revolution of Eighteenth-Century England,” in Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England, ed. John Brewer and J. H. Plumb (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), 11.
4. Nathaniel Forster, An Enquiry into the Causes of the Present High Price of Provisions (London: J. Fletcher, 1767), 41.
5. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, ed. Edwin Cannan (New York: Modern Library, 1994).
6. Lee Rainie and Janna Anderson, “The Future of Privacy: Above-and-Beyond Responses: Part 1,” Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech, December 18, 2014, http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/12/18/above-and-beyond-responses-part-1-2/.
7. Tom Simonite, “Google’s Answer to Siri Thinks Ahead,” MIT Technology Review, September 28, 2012, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/429345/googles-answer-to-siri-thinks-ahead; Dieter Bohn, “Google Now: Behind the Predictive Future of Search,” Verge, October 29, 2012, http://www.theverge.com/2012/10/29/3569684/google-now-android-4-2-knowledge-graph-neural-networks.
8. Introducing Google Now, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pPqliPz HYyc; Simonite, “
Google’s Answer to Siri.”
9. Bohn, “Google Now.”
10. Drew Olanoff and Josh Constine, “Facebook Is Adding a Personal Assistant Called ‘M’ to Your Messenger App,” TechCrunch, August 26, 2015, http://social.techcrunch.com/2015/08/26/facebook-is-adding-a-personal-assistant-called-m-to-your-messenger-app; Amir Efrati, “Facebook Preps ‘Moneypenny’ Assistant,” Information, July 13, 2015, https://www.theinformation.com/coming-soon-to-facebook-messenger-moneypenny-assistant.
11. Jessi Hempel, “Facebook Launches M, Its Bold Answer to Siri and Cortana,” Wired, August 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/08/facebook-launches-m-new-kind-virtual-assistant.
12. Andrew Orlowski, “Facebook Scales Back AI Flagship after Chatbots Hit 70% F-AI-Lure Rate,” Register, February 22, 2017, https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/02/22/facebook_ai_fail/.
13. Cory Weinberg, “How Messenger and ‘M’ Are Shifting Gears,” Information, February 22, 2017, https://www.theinformation.com/how-messenger-and-m-are-shifting-gears.
14. For example, a 2004 white paper from the Kansas City Federal Reserve singles out “voice recognition” as a significant threat to future employment rates: “Advances in voice recognition technology, expert systems, and artificial intelligence may eventually allow computers to handle many customer service jobs and perhaps even routine x-ray screening.” See C. Alan Garner, “Offshoring in the Service Sector: Economic Impact and Policy Issues,” Economic Review 89, no. 3 (2004): 5–37. Frey and Osborne’s much-cited 2013 study of technological unemployment sounded the same theme: “Moreover, a company called SmartAction now provides call computerisation solutions that use ML technology and advanced speech recognition to improve upon conventional interactive voice response systems, realising cost savings of 60 to 80 percent over an outsourced call center consisting of human labour.” See Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne, “The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 114 (2013): 254–80. See also a follow-up study: Philipp Brandes, Roger Wattenhofer, and Stefan Schmid, “Which Tasks of a Job Are Susceptible to Computerization?” Bulletin of EATCS 3, no. 120 (2016), http://bulletin.eatcs.org/index.php/beatcs/article/view/467.
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