As neuroscientist Daniel Wolpert writes: Daniel M. Wolpert, Zoubin Ghahramani, and J. Randall Flanagan, “Perspectives and Problems in Motor Learning.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5, no. 11 (2001): 487–94.
As philosopher Doug Anderson observed: Doug Anderson, “Recovering Humanity: Movement, Sport, and Nature.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 28, no. 2 (2001): 140–50.
Chapter 1: The Persistence High
In 1855, Scottish philosopher Alexander Bain: Alexander Bain, The Senses and the Intellect (London: John W. Parker & Son, 1855).
In his memoir Footnotes, cultural historian Vybarr Cregan-Reid: Vybarr Cregan-Reid, Footnotes: How Running Makes Us Human (New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin’s Press, 2017). Quote about the runner’s high on p. 100.
Trail runner and triathlete Scott Dunlap sums up: Scott Dunlap, “Understanding the Runner’s High.” January 8, 2005; http://www.atrailrunnersblog.com/2005/01/understanding-runners-high.html.
In The Runner’s High, Dan Sturn describes: Dan Sturn, “How Humans Fly.” In Garth Battista, ed., The Runner’s High: Illumination and Ecstasy in Motion (Halcottsville, NY: Breakaway Books, 2014). Quote appears on p. 178.
On a Reddit forum dedicated to explaining: https://www.reddit.com/r/running/comments/1nbmjc/what_does_the_runners_high_actually_feel_like/.
Ultrarunner Stephanie Case describes her midrun glow: Stephanie Case, “Riding the Runner’s Highs and Braving the Lows.” March 10, 2011; https://ultrarunnergirl.com/2011/03/10/highs_and_lows/.
As biologist Dennis Bramble and paleoanthropologist Daniel Lieberman write: Dennis M. Bramble and Daniel E. Lieberman, “Endurance Running and the Evolution of Homo.” Nature 432, no. 7015 (2004): 345–52.
“Nothing makes you feel less adequate as a man,” Pontzer recalls: Although Herman Pontzer shared this story with me in our conversation, the quote I used is from the Story Collider podcast where I first heard him tell it. You can listen to the story here: https://www.storycollider.org/stories/2016/10/22/herman-pontzer-burning-calories.
As part of Pontzer’s research project: David A. Raichlen et al., “Physical Activity Patterns and Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Hunter-Gatherers.” American Journal of Human Biology 29, no. 2 (2017): doi: 10.1002/ajhb.22919.
Contrast this to the United States: Jared M. Tucker, Gregory J. Welk, and Nicholas K. Beyler, “Physical Activity in US Adults: Compliance with the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 40, no. 4 (2011): 454–61; Vijay R. Varma et al., “Re-evaluating the Effect of Age on Physical Activity over the Lifespan.” Preventive Medicine 101 (2017): 102–8.
the Hadza show no signs of the cardiovascular disease: Raichlen et al., “Physical Activity Patterns and Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Hunter-Gatherers.”
physical activity . . . is correlated with a sense of purpose: Stephanie A. Hooker and Kevin S. Masters, “Purpose in Life Is Associated with Physical Activity Measured by Accelerometer.” Journal of Health Psychology 21, no. 6 (2016): 962–71.
people are happier . . . when they are physically active: Neal Lathia et al., “Happier People Live More Active Lives: Using Smartphones to Link Happiness and Physical Activity.” PLOS ONE 12, no. 1 (2017): e0160589.
on days when people are more active: Jaclyn P. Maher et al., “Daily Satisfaction with Life Is Regulated by Both Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior.” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 36, no. 2 (2014): 166–78.
Regular exercisers who replace physical activity: Romano Endrighi, Andrew Steptoe, and Mark Hamer, “The Effect of Experimentally Induced Sedentariness on Mood and Psychobiological Responses to Mental Stress.” The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science 208, no. 3 (2016): 245–51.
When adults are randomly assigned to reduce their daily step count: Meghan K. Edwards and Paul D. Loprinzi, “Experimentally Increasing Sedentary Behavior Results in Increased Anxiety in an Active Young Adult Population.” Journal of Affective Disorders 204 (2016): 166–73; Meghan K. Edwards and Paul D. Loprinzi, “Effects of a Sedentary Behavior–Inducing Randomized Controlled Intervention on Depression and Mood Profile in Active Young Adults.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 91, no. 8 (2016): 984–98; Meghan K. Edwards and Paul D. Loprinzi, “Experimentally Increasing Sedentary Behavior Results in Decreased Life Satisfaction.” Health Promotion Perspectives 7, no. 2 (2017): 88–94.
The typical American takes 4,774 steps per day: Tim Althoff et al., “Large-Scale Physical Activity Data Reveal Worldwide Activity Inequality.” Nature 547, no. 7663 (2017): 336–39.
Here: For reviews of anatomical and physiological adaptations in humans that support running and hiking, see: Bramble and Lieberman, “Endurance Running and the Evolution of Homo”; Herman Pontzer, “Economy and Endurance in Human Evolution.” Current Biology 27, no. 12 (2017): R613–21; Jay Schulkin, “Evolutionary Basis of Human Running and Its Impact on Neural Function.” Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience 10 (2016): 59.
As Herman Pontzer puts it: Herman Pontzer, “The Exercise Paradox.” Scientific American, February 2017. Quote appears on p. 27.
high-intensity exercise causes an endorphin rush: Tiina Saanijoki et al., “Opioid Release After High-Intensity Interval Training in Healthy Human Subjects.” Neuropsychopharmacology 43, no. 2 (2018): 246–54; Henning Boecker et al., “The Runner’s High: Opioidergic Mechanisms in the Human Brain.” Cerebral Cortex 18, no. 11 (2008): 2523–31.
descriptions of exercise-induced highs: Patrick M. Whitehead, “The Runner’s High Revisited: A Phenomenological Analysis.” Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 47, no. 2 (2016): 183–98.
Raichlen put regular runners through treadmill workouts: David A. Raichlen et al., “Exercise-Induced Endocannabinoid Signaling Is Modulated by Intensity.” European Journal of Applied Physiology 113, no. 4 (2013): 869–75.
Raichlen decided to put pet dogs on his treadmill: David A. Raichlen et al., “Wired to Run: Exercise-Induced Endocannabinoid Signaling in Humans and Cursorial Mammals with Implications for the ‘Runner’s High.’” Journal of Experimental Biology 215, no. 8 (2012): 1331–36.
scientists have documented a similar increase in endocannabinoids: Angelique G. Brellenthin et al., “Endocannabinoid and Mood Responses to Exercise in Adults with Varying Activity Levels.” Translational Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine 2, no. 21 (2017): 138–45; E. Heyman et al., “Intense Exercise Increases Circulating Endocannabinoid and BDNF Levels in Humans—Possible Implications for Reward and Depression.” Psychoneuroendocrinology 37, no. 6 (2012): 844–51; P. B. Sparling et al., “Exercise Activates the Endocannabinoid System.” NeuroReport 14, no. 17 (2003): 2209–11; M. Feuerecker et al., “Effects of Exercise Stress on the Endocannabinoid System in Humans Under Field Conditions.” European Journal of Applied Physiology 112, no. 7 (2012): 2777–81.
Here: Quote and details about Julia are from a case study reported in Elizabeth Cassidy, Sandra Naylor, and Frances Reynolds, “The Meanings of Physiotherapy and Exercise for People Living with Progressive Cerebellar Ataxia: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis.” Disability and Rehabilitation 40, no. 8 (2018): 894–904.
As Foster told a reporter for ESPN: David Fleming, “Slow and Steady Wins the Planet.” ESPN, February 11, 2011; http://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id=6110087.
As runner Adharanand Finn observes: Adharanand Finn, “Why We Love to Run.” The Guardian, February 5, 2013; https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/the-running-blog/2013/feb/05/why-we-love-to-run.
In clinical trials, the drug led to: Robin Christensen et al., “Efficacy and Safety of the Weight-Loss Drug Rimonabant: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Trials.” The Lancet 370, no. 9600 (2007): P1706–13.
As Morris describes the effects: Hamilton Morris, “New Frontiers of Sobriety.” Vice, July 31, 2009; https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/kwg8ny/new-frontiers-of-sobriety-984-v1
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if you give the drug to rodents: Brooke K. Keeney et al., “Differential Response to a Selective Cannabinoid Receptor Antagonist (SR141716: Rimonabant) in Female Mice from Lines Selectively Bred for High Voluntary Wheel-Running Behaviour.” Behavioural Pharmacology 19, no. 8 (2008): 812–20; Sarah Dubreucq et al., “Ventral Tegmental Area Cannabinoid Type-1 Receptors Control Voluntary Exercise Performance.” Biological Psychiatry 73, no. 9 (2013): 895–903.
Blocking endocannabinoids also eliminates: Johannes Fuss et al., “A Runner’s High Depends on Cannabinoid Receptors in Mice.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 112, no. 42 (2015): 13105–8.
On days when people were active, stressful events: Eli Puterman et al., “Physical Activity and Negative Affective Reactivity in Daily Life.” Health Psychology 36, no. 12 (2017): 1186–94.
In laboratory experiments, exercise: Andreas Ströhle et al., “The Acute Antipanic and Anxiolytic Activity of Aerobic Exercise in Patients with Panic Disorder and Healthy Control Subjects.” Journal of Psychiatric Research 43, no. 12 (2009): 1013–17.
how the endocannabinoid system works: Nora D. Volkow, Aidan J. Hampson, and Ruben D. Baler, “Don’t Worry, Be Happy: Endocannabinoids and Cannabis at the Intersection of Stress and Reward.” Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 57 (2017): 285–308.
they are also about feeling close to others: D. S. Karhson, A. Y. Hardan, and K. J. Parker, “Endocannabinoid Signaling in Social Functioning: an RDoC Perspective.” Translational Psychiatry 6, no. 9 (2016): e905; Don Wei et al., “Endocannabinoid Signaling in the Control of Social Behavior.” Trends in Neurosciences 40, no. 7 (2017): 385–96.
Giving rats an endocannabinoid blocker: Viviana Trezza, Petra J. J. Baarendse, and Louk J. M. J. Vanderschuren, “The Pleasures of Play: Pharmacological Insights into Social Reward Mechanisms.” Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 31, no. 10 (2010): 463–69.
In mice, it makes new mothers: Michal Schechter et al., “Blocking the Postpartum Mouse Dam’s CB1 Receptors Impairs Maternal Behavior as Well as Offspring Development and Their Adult Social-Emotional Behavior.” Behavioural Brain Research 226, no. 2 (2012): 481–92.
“Over the course of a run”: I first heard John Cary’s anecdote on Creating Our Own Lives podcast, then communicated via email. “My Best Conversations with Men Happen While Running.” June 10, 2016; https://podtail.com/podcast/creating-our-own-lives/4-running-my-best-conversations-with-men-happ/.
“My family will sometimes send me out running”: Alice Leadbeter, “Alice’s Inspirational Running Story: Running Has Helped Me on So Many Levels.” 261 Fearless; http://www.261fearless.org/blog/l/alices-inspirational-running-story-running-has-helped-me-on-so-many-levels/.
on days when people exercise: Kevin C. Young et al., “The Cascade of Positive Events: Does Exercise on a Given Day Increase the Frequency of Additional Positive Events?” Personality and Individual Differences 120 (2018): 299–303.
when spouses exercise together: Jeremy B. Yorgason et al., “Marital Benefits of Daily Individual and Conjoint Exercise Among Older Couples.” Family Relations 67, no. 2 (2018): 227–39.
why humans have such big whites of the eyes: Brian Hare, “Survival of the Friendliest: Homo sapiens Evolved via Selection for Prosociality.” Annual Review of Psychology 68 (2017): 155–86.
Another such adaptation is a neurobiological reward: Jamil Zaki and Jason P. Mitchell, “Prosociality as a Form of Reward-Seeking.” In Joshua David Greene, India Morrison, and Martin E. P. Seligman, eds., Positive Neuroscience (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Carolyn H. Declerck, Christophe Boone, and Griet Emonds, “When Do People Cooperate? The Neuroeconomics of Prosocial Decision Making.” Brain and Cognition 81, no. 1 (2013): 95–117.
Mutual cooperation activates brain regions: James K. Rilling et al., “A Neural Basis for Social Cooperation.” Neuron 35, no. 2 (2002): 395–405; Jean Decety et al., “The Neural Bases of Cooperation and Competition: An fMRI Investigation.” Neuroimage 23, no. 2 (2004): 744–51.
sitting around a fire encourages social bonding: Christopher Dana Lynn, “Hearth and Campfire Influences on Arterial Blood Pressure: Defraying the Costs of the Social Brain Through Fireside Relaxation.” Evolutionary Psychology 12, no. 5 (2014): 983–1003.
An experiment at the Sapienza University of Rome: Giovanni Di Bartolomeo and Stefano Papa, “The Effects of Physical Activity on Social Interactions: The Case of Trust and Trustworthiness.” Journal of Sports Economics (2017): doi.org/10.1177/1527002517717299.
half the older adults in the UK: Susan Davidson and Phil Rossall, “Evidence Review: Loneliness in Later Life.” Age UK, July 2014. Available at: https://www.ageuk.org.uk/Documents/EN-GB/For-professionals/Research/Age%20UK%20Evidence%20Review%20on%20Loneliness%20July%202014.pdf.
Two hundred thousand older adults in England and Wales: Ceylan Yeginsu, “U.K. Appoints a Minister for Loneliness.” New York Times, January 17, 2018; https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/17/world/europe/uk-britain-loneliness.html.
As one person who requested visits: Evaluation of GoodGym, a 2015–2016 study conducted by Ecorys, funded by Nesta’s Centre for Social Action Innovation Fund; https://media.nesta.org.uk/documents/good_gym_evaluation.pdf.
ultra-distance runner Amit Sheth wrote: Amit Sheth, Dare to Run (Mumbai: Sanjay and Company, 2011). Quote appears on p. 61.
one of the ways that regular exercise changes your brain: Valentina De Chiara et al., “Voluntary Exercise and Sucrose Consumption Enhance Cannabinoid CB1 Receptor Sensitivity in the Striatum.” Neuropsychopharmacology 35, no. 2 (2010): 374–87; Matthew N. Hill et al., “Endogenous Cannabinoid Signaling Is Required for Voluntary Exercise-Induced Enhancement of Progenitor Cell Proliferation in the Hippocampus.” Hippocampus 20, no. 4 (2010): 513–23.
Chapter 2: Getting Hooked
As he later wrote: Frederick Baekeland, “Exercise Deprivation: Sleep and Psychological Reactions.” Archives of General Psychiatry 22, no. 4 (1970): 365–69.
numerous studies have shown that for regular exercisers: Julie A. Morgan et al., “Does Ceasing Exercise Induce Depressive Symptoms? A Systematic Review of Experimental Trials Including Immunological and Neurogenic Markers.” Journal of Affective Disorders 234 (2018): 180–92; Eugene V. Aidman and Simon Woollard, “The Influence of Self-Reported Exercise Addiction on Acute Emotional and Physiological Responses to Brief Exercise Deprivation.” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 4, no. 3 (2003): 225–36; Ali A. Weinstein, Christine Koehmstedt, and Willem J. Kop, “Mental Health Consequences of Exercise Withdrawal: A Systematic Review.” General Hospital Psychiatry 49 (2017): 11–18.
exercise scientist Attila Szabo declared: Attila Szabo, “Studying the Psychological Impact of Exercise Deprivation: Are Experimental Studies Hopeless?” Journal of Sport Behavior 21, no. 2 (1998): 139–47.
This phenomenon—known as attention capture: Boris Cheval et al., “Behavioral and Neural Evidence of the Rewarding Value of Exercise Behaviors: A Systematic Review.” Sports Medicine 48, no. 6 (2018): 1389–1404.
when self-proclaimed exercise addicts view images: Yu Jin Kim et al., “The Neural Mechanism of Exercise Addiction as Determined by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI).” Journal of Korean Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women 32, no. 1 (2018): 69–80.
A small percentage of exercisers also show symptoms: Kata Mónok et al., “Psychometric Properties and Concurrent Validity of Two Exercise Addiction Measures: A Population Wide Study.” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 13, no. 6 (2012): 739–46.
One forty-six-year-old long-distance runner: Joshua Justin Cook, “The Relationship Between Mental Health and Ultra-Running: A Case Study,” 2018. Theses and Dissertations. 2850 http://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/2850.
Theodore Garland Jr. told a New Yorker journalist: Nicola Twilley, “A Pill to Make Exercise Obsolete.” The New Yorker, November 6, 2017, 30–35.
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nbsp; Exercise physiologist Samuele Marcora has proposed: Samuele Marcora, “Can Doping Be a Good Thing? Using Psychoactive Drugs to Facilitate Physical Activity Behaviour.” Sports Medicine 46, no. 1 (2016): 1–5.
Chronic use of such a drug eventually flips: Eric J. Nestler, “∆FosB: A Molecular Switch for Reward.” Journal of Drug and Alcohol Research 2 (2013): article ID 235651.
These proteins trigger long-lasting changes: Nora D. Volkow and Marisela Morales, “The Brain on Drugs: From Reward to Addiction.” Cell 162, no. 4 (2015): 712–25.
Scientists have observed these changes: Deanna L. Wallace et al., “The Influence of ΔFosB in the Nucleus Accumbens on Natural Reward-Related Behavior.” Journal of Neuroscience 28, no. 41 (2008): 10272–77.
running also flips the molecular switch: Martin Werme et al., “ΔFosB Regulates Wheel Running.” Journal of Neuroscience 22, no. 18 (2002): 8133–38.
In laboratory studies with rats: Martin Werme et al., “Running and Cocaine Both Upregulate Dynorphin mRNA in Medial Caudate Putamen.” European Journal of Neuroscience 12, no. 8 (2000): 2967–74.
they go on running binges: Anthony Ferreira et al., “Spontaneous Appetence for Wheel-Running: A Model of Dependency on Physical Activity in Rat.” European Psychiatry 21, no. 8 (2006): 580–88.
Two weeks of wheel-running is insufficient: Benjamin N. Greenwood et al., “Long-Term Voluntary Wheel Running Is Rewarding and Produces Plasticity in the Mesolimbic Reward Pathway.” Behavioural Brain Research 217, no. 2 (2011): 354–62.
sedentary adults who begin high-intensity training: Jennifer J. Heisz et al., “Enjoyment for High-Intensity Interval Exercise Increases During the First Six Weeks of Training: Implications for Promoting Exercise Adherence in Sedentary Adults.” PLOS ONE 11, no. 12 (2016): e0168534.
One study of new members at a gym: Navin Kaushal and Ryan E. Rhodes, “Exercise Habit Formation in New Gym Members: A Longitudinal Study.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 38, no. 4 (2015): 652–63.
such as the young single mother: Barbara Walsh et al., “‘Net Mums’: A Narrative Account of Participants’ Experiences Within a Netball Intervention.” Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 10, no. 5 (2018): 604–19.
The Joy of Movement Page 21
