Tribe of Shabazz—According to NOI theology, the Tribe of Shabazz was the lone survivor of thirteen tribes that lived sixty-six trillion years ago. Led by a scientist of the same name, it was believed that members of the Nation were descendants of the tribe, which eventually settled in present-day Mecca.
Ummah—Arabic word meaning “community” or “nation,” it refers to the Arab world or, in Islam, the diaspora of believers throughout the world.
Umrah—Lesser pilgrimage compared to the hajj, it refers to travel to the holy sites out of season.
Walaikum salaam—The typical response to As-salaam alaikum, meaning “And upon you be peace.”
Well of Zamzam—A well located within the Masjid al-Haram, not far from the Kaaba. Pilgrims drink from the well each year during hajj or umrah.
“A White Man’s Heaven Is a Black Man’s Hell”—Song composed by calypso singer and future national minister Louis Farrakhan for the Nation of Islam.
X—Each Nation of Islam member was required to drop his or her surname and replace it with an X, representing the unknown ancestral surname that had been stripped away through slavery. Numbers preceded the X if more than one member of a mosque shared the same first name, progressing in order of membership.
Yacub’s History—According to NOI theology, Dr. Yacub (often spelled Yakub) was an evil scientist who lived in Mecca in 8400 BCE. After he and his followers were exiled to an island in the Aegean Sea, Dr. Yacub sought revenge by genetically grafting the black gene from the Original Man until the white race was eventually created, long after his death at the age of 152.
Zakat—Another of the five pillars, zakat is the calculated percentage of one’s possessions or earnings to be given to the needy and community.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Government Documents
Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice (listed by numerical file number)
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) releases
Earl Little Arson Special Report (#2155), Department of State Police, Lansing, Michigan
Estate of Earl Little (File A-4053), Ingham County Probate Court, State of Michigan
Louise Little Mental Health Record (File B-4398), Ingham County Probate Court, State of Michigan
Malcolm Little, Office of Public Safety and Security, Department of Corrections, State of Michigan
Malcolm X Bureau of Special Services and Investigation file, New York Police Department
Malcolm X Central Intelligence Agency file
Malcolm X Secret Service file
Malcolm X State Department file
New York City Department of Records and Information Services, Municipal Archives in the City of New York
Prison File of Malcolm Little (#22843), Department of Corrections, Commonwealth of Massachusetts
Archival Collections
A. Peter Bailey/OAAU Papers, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, New York
Alex Haley Papers, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, New York
Aliya Hassen Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Anne Romaine Collection, Special Collections Library, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
C. Eric Lincoln Collection, Robert W. Woodruff Library, Special Collections Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
Earl Little Death Certificate, Michigan Department of Community Health, Division for Vital Records and Health Statistics
George Breitman Papers, Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University
Howard K. Smith Papers, Archives Division, Wisconsin Historical Society
J. B. Matthews Papers, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
James Haughton Papers, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, New York
John Henrik Clarke Papers, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, New York
Julian Mayfield Papers, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, New York
Kalamazoo State Hospital, Clarence L. Miller Local History Room, Kalamazoo Public Library, Kalamazoo, Michigan
Ken McCormick Collection of the Records of Doubleday and Company, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress
Malcolm X Assassination Trial Transcripts, Union Theological Seminary, New York, New York
Malcolm X Collection, 1941-1955, Robert W. Woodruff Library, Special Collections Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
Malcolm X Collection, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, New York
Malcolm X Debate with Willoughby Abner, 1962, Archives Division, Wisconsin Historical Society
Milton A. Galamison Papers, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, New York
National Union of Hospital and Health Care Employees Record, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
Oral History of Charles Kenyatta, 1970, Manuscript Division, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University Library, Washington, D.C.
Oral History of Peter Bailey, 1968, Manuscript Division, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University Library, Washington, D.C.
Papers of Jackie Robinson, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress
Paul Revere Reynolds Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University, New York, New York
Percival Leroy Prattis Papers, Manuscript Division, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University Library, Washington, D.C.
Reminiscences of Bayard Rustin, 1987, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, New York, New York
Reminiscences of Ed Edwin, 1967, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, New York, New York
Reminiscences of James Farmer, 1979, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, New York, New York
Reminiscences of Kenneth B. Clark, 1976, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, New York, New York
Reminiscences of Malcolm X: A Lecture, 1963, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, New York, New York
Reminiscences of Mamie Clark, 1976, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, New York, New York
Willoughby Abner Collection, Walter P. Reuther Library, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan
Oral Histories
Bailey, A. Peter. June 20, 2003
Baraka, Amiri. June 11, 2001
Brown, Dr. William Neal. May 10, 2005
Butler, Norman 3X. December 22, 2008
Davis, Ossie. June 29, 2003
Farrakhan, Louis. May 9, 2005; December 27, 2007
Feelings, Muriel. October 10, 2003
Ferguson, Herman. June 27, 2003; June 24, 2004; July 31, 2007; August 28, 2007
Fulcher, Gerry. October 3, 2007
Johnson, Thomas 15X. September 29, 2004
McCallum, Dr. Leo X. December 26, 2005
Prescott, Larry 4X. March 10, 2006; June 9, 2006; November 7, 2007
Reynolds, Jeanne. June 25, 2003
Savage, Langston Hughes. September 6, 2008
Stanford, Max. January 31, 2003; August 28, 2007
Warden, James 67X. June 18, 2003; July 24, 2007; August 1, 2007
Interviews
DeCaro, Louis A., Jr. July 16, 2001
Goldman, Peter. July 12, 2004
Griffin, Farah Jasmine. August 6, 2001
Hussey, Dermot. May 7, 2005
Kelley, Robin D. G. July 13, 20
01
Muhammad, Najee. September 5, 2003
Powell, Kevin. June 22, 2001
Sherwood, Marika. December 6, 2002
Newspapers and Periodicals
Afro-American (Baltimore)
American Heritage
Amsterdam News
Atlanta Daily World
The Atlantic (Washington, D.C.)
Baltimore Sun
The Black Panther
Black Scholar
Black World
Boston Herald
The Butler Herald (Butler, GA)
The Catalogue of Brown University
The Challenger
The Charleston Chronicle (Charleston, SC)
Chicago Daily News
Chicago Defender
Chicago Tribune
Chicago’s American
Christian Century
Christianity and Crisis
City Sun (New York)
Columbia Daily Spectator
Daily Graphic (Ghana)
Daily Telegraph
Democrat and Chronicle (Rochester, NY)
The Detroit News
Dialogue Magazine
Ebony
Egyptian Gazette
Emerge
Esquire
Essence
Ghanaian Times
Guardian (London)
Hartford Courant
The Harvard Crimson
Herald Tribune (New York)
International Socialist Review
Jet
Journal American
Journal and Guide (Norfolk, VA)
The Liberator
Look
Los Angeles Herald-Dispatch
Los Angeles Sentinel
Los Angeles Times
Manchester Guardian Weekly
Michigan Chronicle
Michigan Citizen
The Militant (New York)
Monthly Review
Moslem Sunrise
Muhammad Speaks
Muslim World
Negro Digest
Negro World
New Crusader (Chicago)
New Jersey Herald News (Newark)
The New Leader
New Statesman (London)
New York magazine
New York Herald Tribune
New York Journal American
New York Post
New York Telegraph and Sun
New York Times
The New York Times Book Review
New York World Telegram and the Sun
Newsday (New York)
Newsweek
Oakland Tribune
Pittsburgh Courier
Playboy
Readers Digest
The Rockwell Report
Rutgers Observer
Sacramento Observer
San Francisco Chronicle
Saturday Evening Post
The Source
Springfield Union (Springfield, MA)
St. Louis Globe-Democrat
State Journal (Lansing, MI)
The Sunday Telegraph (London)
Time
Tri-State Defender (Memphis, TN)
U.S. News and World Report
Village Voice
Wall Street Journal
Washington Post
Yale Daily News
Young Socialist
Dissertations and Theses
Bertley, Leo W. “The Universal Negro Improvement Association of Montreal, 1917-1974.” Ph.D. dissertation, Concordia University, California, 1980.
Brooks, Stacy Lamar. “Celebrating Martin and Forgetting Malcolm: The Punishment of Black Leadership Purpose Agency.” M.A. thesis, University of Louisville, 2004.
Burrows, Cedric Dewayne. “The Contemporary Rhetoric About Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X in the Post-Reagan Era.” M.A. thesis, Miami University, 2005.
DeCaro, Louis Anthony, Jr. “Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam: Two Moments in His Religious Sojourn.” Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1994.
Dinkins, Andrew Ann. “Malcolm X and the Rhetoric of Transformation: 1948-1965.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1995.
Dvorak, Kenneth R. “Terror in Detroit: The Rise and Fall of Michigan’s Black Legion.” Ph.D. dissertation, Bowling Green State University, 1990.
Dyson, Michael Eric. “Uses of Heroes: Celebration and Criticism in the Interpretation of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr.” Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1993.
Farrah, Daryl. “Re-examining Malcolm X.” M.A. thesis San Jose State University, 2000.
Gay, John Franklin. “The Rhetorical Strategies and Tactics of Malcolm X (Movement Theory, Neo-Aristotelian, Black Muslims, Persuasion).” Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1985.
Hess, Eldora F. “The Negro in Nebraska.” M.A. thesis, University of Nebraska, 1932.
Hodges, John Oliver. “The Quest for Selfhood in the Autobiographies of W. E. B. Du Bois, Richard Wright, and Malcolm X.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1980.
Lee, Andrew Ann Dinkins. “Malcolm X and the Rhetoric of Transformation: 1948-1965.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1995.
Leullen, David Elmer. “Ministers and Martyrs: Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr.” Ph.D. dissertation, Ball State University, 1972.
Mazucci, Elizabeth. “St. Martin’s Relics: A Study of the Artifacts Shaped by the Assassination of Malcolm X.” M.A. thesis, Columbia University, 2005.
Moore, William Henry. “On Identity and Consciousness of El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (Malcolm X): An Application of the Theory of Identity to the History of Black Consciousness.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1974.
Morrison, Carlos D. “The Rhetoric of the Nation of Islam, 1930-1975: A Functional Approach.” Ph.D. dissertation, Howard University, 1996.
Muhammad, Najee Emerson. “The Transformational Leadership and Educational Philosophic Legacy of Malcolm X.” Ed.D. dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1999.
Namphy, Mychel Josef. “Malcolm’s Mood Indigo: A Theodicy of Literary Contests.” Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 2003.
Norman, Barbara Ann. “The Black Muslims: A Rhetorical Analysis (Malcolm X, Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad).” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oklahoma, 1985.
Onwubu, Chukwuemeka. “Black Ideologies and the Sociology of Knowledge: The Public Response to the Protest Thoughts and Teachings of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X.” Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1975.
Polizzi, David. “The Experience of Antiblack Racism: A Phenomenological Hermeneutic of The Autobiography of Malcolm X.” Ph.D. dissertation, Duquesne University, 2002.
Pugh, Maurice. “Black Theology: Cone, King, and Malcolm X.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary, 2006.
Sales, William W., Jr. “Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity: A Case Study in Afro-American Nationalism.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1991.
Smallwood, Andrew Peter. “Malcolm X: An Intellectual Aesthetic for Black Adult Education. Ed.D. dissertation, Northern Illinois University, 1998.
Terrill, Robert Edward. “Symbolic Emancipation in the Rhetoric of Malcolm X.” Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1996.
Varda, Scott Joseph. “A Rhetorical History of Malcolm X.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, 2007.
Washington, Von Hugo. “An Evaluation of the Play Purlie Victorious and Its Impact on the American Theater Scene.” Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1979.
Whitaker, Catherine Jean. “Almshouses and Mental Institutions in Michigan, 1871-1930.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1986.
Woods, Ventris. “Political Communication and the Social Construction of Malcolm X.” Ph.D. dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 1998.
Woodyard, Jeffrey Lynn. “Africalogical Rhetorical Theory and Criticism: Afrocentric Approaches to the Rhetoric of Malcolm X.” Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University,
1996.
Journal Articles
“A Conversation with Ossie Davis.” Souls, vol. 2, no. 3 (Summer 2000): 6-16.
Amann, Peter H. “Vigilante Fascism: The Black Legion as an American Hybrid.” Contemporary Studies in Society and History, vol. 25, no. 3 (July 1983): 490-524.
Baraka, Amiri (aka LeRoi Jones). “Jazz Criticism and Its effects on the Art Form,” pp. 55-70, in Baker, David, ed. New Perspectives in Jazz. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, 1986.
Beynon, Erdmann Doane. “The Voodoo Cult Among Negro Migrants in Detroit.” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 43, no. 6 (May 1938): 894-907.
Bloch, Herman D. “The Employment Status of the New York Negro in Retrospect.” Phylon , vol. 20, no. 4 (1959): 327-344.
Branham, Robert James. “‘I Was Gone on Debating’ Malcolm X's Prison Debates and Public Confrontations.” Argumentation and Advocacy, vol. 31 (Winter 1995): 117-137.
Burns, W. Haywood. “The Black Muslims in America: a Reinterpretation.” Race, vol. 5, no. 1 (July 1963): 26-37.
Capeci, Dominic J. “From Different Liberal Perspectives: Fiorello H. LaGuardia, Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., and Civil Rights in New York City, 1941-1943.” Journal of Negro History, vol. 62, no. 2 (April 1977): 160-173.
Clinonsmith, Michael S. “The Black Legion: Hooded Americanism in Michigan.” Michigan History Magazine, vol. 55, no. 3 (1971): 243-262.
Condit, Celeste Michelle, and John Louis Lucaites. “Malcolm X and the Limits of the Rhetoric of Revolutionary Dissent.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 23, no. 3 (March 1993): 291-313.
Curtis, IV, Edward. “Islamism and Its African American Muslim Critics: Black Muslims in the Era of the Arab Cold War.” American Quarterly, vol. 59, no. 3 (September 2007): 683-709.
Daniels, Douglas Henry. “Los Angeles Zoot Race 'Riot': The Pachuco and Black Culture Music.” Journal of Negro History, vol. 82, issue 2 (Spring 1997): 201-220.
Davidson, Nicol. “Alioune Diop and the African Renaissance.” African Affairs, vol. 78, no. 310 (January 1979): 3-11.
Demarest, David P., Jr. “The Autobiography of Malcolm X: Beyond Didacticism.” CLA Journal, vol. 16, no. 2 (December 1972): 179-187.
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