by Kerr, Gordon
The virtuous woman made her way over to the camp of Holofernes and gradually managed to sway him to speak to her. Naturally he was cautious and at first was not convinced by her story. She was very persistent though and her eloquence and beauty impressed him greatly. After fine food and a small amount of drink had been consumed he allowed her to stay overnight and encouraged her to stay in his own tent. She declined, but met him warmly the next morning. This routine was maintained over the next three days but brave Judith was never given the opportunity to murder the man who had caused so much harm to the Israelites. On the fourth day, Holofernes invited Judith to another night of feasting, though this one proved to be fateful to the fearsome general. After they had all dined, the wine flowed freely and no one was more intoxicated than Holofernes.
Upon his drunken return to the camp, he promptly fell into what would be his last ever sleep. Judith saw his slumber as being the perfect opportunity to kill the man who had weakened the spirits of her people and she went into his tent with murder in mind. As she entered his tent she grasped her knife firmly and steeled herself to the gruesome act that she was about to commit. She plunged the knife deeply into his neck and did not stop until his head came off in its entirety. Perhaps it was unnecessarily violent, but she needed it for the next part of her plan.
THE ISRAELITES DEFEAT ASSYRIA
Judith quickly attached the bloody head to the battlements of his camp and sped back home to the Israelites to tell them of the success of her plan. During the night Israelite forces gathered together and planned to take the Assyrian camp by surprise. They knew that without their military leader the Assyrians would not be able to beat them and this raised their spirits as they prepared for battle. Their opposition woke as usual the next day, and news spread fast that their commander had been slaughtered. They did not know what to do since they had always had such a strong leader and they decided that the best form of protection was to flee from their own land. The Israelites, on the other hand, had been rallying their army through the night and were prepared to meet the Assyrians in battle. The camp was easily overcome and the Israelites rose victorious from the battle.
Following their triumph, the rejoicing and feasting in Jerusalem lasted for a whole three months. The people were reconciled to the greatness of their god and proved that his promise had been fulfilled. As for Judith, she chose to dedicate the rest of her life to honourable widowhood. She did not remarry but was constantly seeking opportunities to share out her long deceased husband’s wealth. Indeed, she can be seen as a virtuous and noble woman despite the horrific way in which she killed the Israelites’ main enemy. She was constantly driven by her desire to bring an end to the years of wars against Israel and to restore peace to a ravaged nation.
Alcibiades
The strength of the Greek army was understandably essential to the smooth running of the ancient city of Athens. The city was involved in a very damaging war waged against Sparta from 431–404 BC. The Peloponnesian war primarily came about as a trade dispute between the two countries and quickly escalated into full-scale warfare. The war dragged on for years but did not stop even after the death in battle of the military leader Cleon in 422. This left a vacancy for a new leader and with his expertise and military ability Alcibiades was a natural candidate.
Like Brutus, Alcibiades was also given a great head start in life. His father was Clinias and Alcibiades was born into an aristocratic family that traced its origins back to the King of Salamis. Even after his father’s sudden death in 447 BC he was well provided for. He was brought up by the famous general Pericles and was closely associated with Socrates whom he would often engage in intellectual debates. Their friendship went far beyond the realms of intellectual thought as they had both saved each other’s lives in different battles. In short, the military leader was never at a loss for influential friends and these provided him with the support he needed to be successful in warfare.
At the age of thirty he entered into the world of politics and, on becoming a general in 420 BC, he revealed himself as an advocate for the extension of the Peloponnesian war. He refused to accept the ‘Peace of Nicias’, drawn up to bring an end to the fighting, and instead pushed Athens to become involved in an anti-Spartan alliance with the three city states of the Peloponnese. This alliance was defeated by the Spartans in 418 BC and Alcibiades quickly fell from favour. He won his popularity back soon after with a great victory in the chariot races at Olympia, with three of his chariots winning first, second and fourth place. It did not take much to gain popular favour again, but Alcibiades was careful to err on the side of caution.
MASTER OF DECEPTION
Having acted as the driving force behind the Sicilian Expedition of 415 BC, Alcibiades was somewhat complacent about the necessity of his role to the city of Athens. He had proved himself not only to be a valuable addition to their army, but furthermore had impressed the population with his skills as an orator. However, his great political aspirations hindered him from gaining a place within the hearts of the people, as he was known more for being ferociously ambitious than by his other merits. As a result of the suspicion around his motives, Alcibiades was arrested just as his ships were due to set sail on the Sicilian expedition. The charges levied against him were grave; he was accused of being involved in the ‘Mutilation of the Hermae’ where he allegedly parodied the sacred events of the Festival at Eleusis, and went on a destructive rampage, damaging many of the statues in the town. Whether or not these allegations were actually true has never been established but the military leader knew that he needed to have all the supporters he could get in order for him to escape the charges. He proposed that he be tried at that very moment as he knew this would give him an advantage, but instead he was told he would be summoned for at a later date. Greatly annoyed, he left for Sicily.
A short time later he was summoned from Sicily to stand trial, but learning that he had been condemned to death in his absence, he promptly fled to Argos. In the years that followed Alcibiades proved to be a traitor in every sense of the word and as a result was unable to settle in any one place. Firstly, he switched his allegiance and approached the Spartans, offering them military advice. He suggested that the Spartans add more military protection to the town of Decelea in Attica, which would offer them a strategic advantage over the Athenians. This was a good plan, but during his time with the Spartans he committed another form of treachery by seducing the king’s own wife. To make matters worse, she then became pregnant and it was widely reputed that Alcibiades was the father of her baby. Naturally King Agis was furious, and as time went on his anger grew inside him. The commander continued to work with the Spartans and encouraged them to make various tactical alliances in order to defeat the Athenians. However, his position was no longer safe as he began to hear rumours of conspiracies to have him killed. Not sparing a second thought for the woman and child he had left behind, he promptly fled from Sparta and sought refuge at the court of their ally, Tissaphernes of Persia. Using his silver tongue he managed to persuade the ruler to reverse any policies made in favour of the Spartans, and requested to remain safely in Persia.
RECALLED BY ATHENS
Having taken advantage of the Persians hospitality for a little too long, Alcibiades sought ways to regain his standing with the Athenians. At this time there were two revolutions taking place in Athens. The first saw the overthrow of democracy, and the second caused the downfall of oligarchy. He made sure to root himself firmly on the side of democracy and was instrumental in reinstating it in Athens. Not long after this he was officially pardoned by the Athenians who recognised his invaluable abilities as a commander and desired him more as their ally than their enemy. He was kept at arm’s length initially and stationed with a fleet in Samos, but then he was reinstated within his previous standing as a general. In 407 BC he was finally allowed to return to Athens and was promoted to commander-in-chief. This prestige only lasted as long as the army was successful and Alcibiades promptly fell f
rom favour again when his subordinate Antiochus was defeated.
In 404 BC Athens finally buckled under the strain of war. Following their devastating defeat against Sparta they had no more use for a man of Alcibiades calibre and, feeling that he had out stayed his welcome, he left Athens. It seems that he still had enemies wherever he went and he was murdered on the way to the court of the Persian king Ataxerxes.
Alcibiades led a selfish existence, constantly looking out for his best interests and not caring about the impact that his decisions would have on others. Although his abilities stood out, most people knew that he could not be trusted and he was forced, until his abrupt demise, to move aimlessly from place to place for the whole of his life.
Ephialtes of Trachis
Throughout Greek history there have been numerous stories of people who have turned against their country and sought new allegiances with their enemies. The reasons for this were often centred around their own greed and fears that the Greek side would not defeat their opposition. For many it was simply easier to defect to the opposition where there was a chance for a reward, rather than admit almost certain defeat. This was the option that Ephialtes chose and his decision ultimately led to the demise of a Greek king and 300 of the bravest Spartan warriors.
In 480 BC, ancient Greece was waging an extended war with the Persians. Under their King Xerxes the Persian Empire was continually expanding. Their acquired lands stretched from Persia’s western border at Troy to their Eastern border, known today as Russia. Xerxes had set his mind to conquering Europe, and with it the mighty Greece. The sides were never evenly balanced and the ancient historian Herodotus even estimated the Persians’ army to amount to millions. Whether this was an exaggerated claim is unknown but they certainly outnumbered the Greek force in their thousands. The Greeks and Spartans had been reduced to a smaller army as religious obligations forbade them from forming an army during the festival of Cameia. The celebrations were due to continue for days, so all that was available to fight was a small troop of 300 soldiers and their commander and King, Leonidas.
FIGHTING FOR TIME
The 300 men knew that they were facing certain death. In an effort to preserve their lives for a bit longer they tried to raise as many allies as possible. The Spartans were essentially trying to stall for time whilst more troops were being rallied at home. They knew that numerically the Persians could not be defeated, but were also aware that their own minimal amount of fighters were much more skilled than many of the opposition. Knowing that the Persians would not be able to use their numbers to their advantage, the spartans planned to give themselves more time by occupying the narrow mountain passage of Thermopylae.
Along the way they had picked up 6,000 Greek hoplites, specially skilled fighters who relied heavily upon their shields. For two whole days the small group managed to hold off the advances of the Persian troops. Many of their small force perished but their position remained secure in the gap between the Trachinian cliffs and the Malian Gulf. The Spartans were also helped by over 1,000 Phocians who came into battle in order to protect their homes and families. Shortly after this they returned home on mass, putting their families as the priority over that of a seemingly hopeless battle.
THE BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE
What happened next was to cement the fate of the remaining warriors. There are a number of differing opinions about Ephialtes, the popular film 300 depicting him as a mutated figure, physically unable to serve with the numbered Spartans. If this were the case he may have been motivated by his anger, but it seems more likely that his desire for a reward was the reason behind his betrayal. Having fought tirelessly for two days, Ephialtes offered the Persians a way around the resilient Spartans. He revealed to them a secret trail which led over the mountains at the south of Thermopylae and joined the main road behind the Greek position. This simple act had massive repercussions and the small force realised that they were surrounded. In an effort to preserve as many lives as possible, King Leonidas dismissed the remaining hoplites and instructed the 300 soldiers for the last time.
In ancient culture the greatest honour that could be won was gained by fighting fearlessly to the death. The Spartans were determined to battle and protect their land until they could fight no more and the 300 brave men fought the oncoming surge of Persians with their greatest might. They were bombarded with missiles and suffered an ignominious death as their corpses were ripped apart and the body of the great king Leonidas was torn into pieces.
Expecting to earn a great reward for his communications with the Persians, Ephialtes waited patiently. The reward for his treachery came to nothing, however, as the Persians were forced to withdraw from Greece following their abominable defeat at Salamis in the same year. The Battle of Salamis was fought at sea and Athens, under the generalship of Themistokles, used their navy to defeat the much larger Persian army and forced Xerxes to retreat. This victory signalled the turning point of the campaign and led the way for many other Persian defeats. Essentially the Greeks triumphed by ensuring that without a functioning navy, Xerxes would not be able to provide supplies for his huge army.
The small band of soldiers who had bravely fought at the Battle of Thermopylae were never truly fated to rise victorious. For two whole days they managed to hold off the Persians and preserve the lives of as many of their company as possible. The only reason that they were not able to hold out longer was because they were cruelly betrayed by the actions of one greedy man who was seeking a reward for his deception.
Socrates
The city of Athens had suffered greatly under the crippling strains of the Peloponnesian war waged between Athens and Sparta from 431–404 BC. Throughout this period Athens suffered many defeats and found itself considerably weakened both financially and militarily as the fighting continued. During this twenty-seven-year time span the Athenian leaders were keen to preserve a democratic system of government in which to control the citizens themselves. After the calamitous temporary overhaul of democracy in 411 BC, the city endured a short, but disastrous, stretch of political disruption which Socrates was allegedly associated with. Socrates’s actions would not be classed as treacherous within our own society, as the crimes that he supposedly committed were more to do with challenging the established opinions and beliefs of others, than detectable crimes against the city. The ultimate defeat of Athens came in 405 BC, and the city was forced to accept a new government under the ‘Thirty Tyrants’ as a condition of the Spartan peace treaty. Socrates made his philosophical opinions available to anyone who would listen with an open mind and consequently began teaching young men such as Critias and Alcibiades, who both had strong ties with the newly formed tyrannical regime. As a result of his affiliations, the philosopher’s own political and religious views were brought into question and he was summoned by the Athenian court to be tried in 399 BC.
HIS TEACHINGS
Socrates has established himself firmly as one of the world’s most powerful and memorable philosphers, not just in the ancient world but also acting as a starting point for many of our current Western ideas. Socrates had many different areas of philosophical interest but because the great thinker never put pen to paper himself, we are forced to rely upon the accounts of others in order to determine an idea of who he was and the ideas that he stood for. One of Socrates’s most renowned students was Plato, who became an unofficial observer and documenter on the life and teachings of Socrates. As with much of the literature that covers Socrates’s teachings, Plato describes him in a highly respected manner and portrays him, not solely as one of the greatest thinkers of our time, but more importantly as a flawed human being who was constantly striving to better himself and encourage others to do the same.
From the beginning of his life Socrates set an intellectual and theoretical standard which has been hard to match even thousands of years after his initial messages were put forward. Born in 470 BC, he stood out from the crowd from his youth by virtue of his approachable manner and easy abil
ity to speak to all ages and audiences. He fitted naturally into his role of teacher and educator by making his message accessible to everyone, and could often be found talking to large groups of people, whether in the bustling Athenian streets, the business districts or even in the gymnasium!
The main ideas and messages that Socrates stood for can be seen throughout many of Plato’s works, especially the Republic, Symposium and The Last Days of Socrates. A common theme preoccupies these accounts, and Plato seems convinced that Socrates was focused on the idea of the most perfect life that a person could aspire to could be fulfilled solely through fine tuning goodness and virtue in their perfect balance. One of Socrates’s most contentious musings, which was met with a great measure of hostility, was his apparent denunciation of any democratic form of government. Socrates would have been viewed by many as a traitor to the city, as his controversial opinions posed a direct challenge to the successful democracy which had led to the now fading Golden Age of Athens. It may be slightly unjustified to speak of Socrates as a plotter or traitor within our modern sense of the word, but his radical views against democracy and influence over his youngest students would certainly have posed a threat to those seeking to regain democracy around this time.
