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Acknowledgments
Over the course of a decade, I have incurred numerous debts to scholars, friends, and archivists on two continents, several countries, and half a dozen archives. They are listed here in no particular order with a preemptive apology for anyone inadvertently left out. Needless to say, they are not responsible for the errors that have crept into the text or the interpretations I have adopted.
Jeff Kehoe at Harvard University Press and Deirdre Mullane were the first to lend encouragement to this project. It is my extraordinary good fortune to have had Jonathan Galassi as wise and patient editor, shepherding the manuscript through to publication with graceful erudition. Thanks to Jesse Coleman (editor), Chris Peterson (production editor), and, especially, Cynthia Merman (copy editor) at FSG.
Archivists have been especially kind in permitting me to consult and reproduce documents. Dr. Paola Pirovano and Professors Maurizio Degl’Innocenti and Stefano Caretti of the Fondazione di Studi Storici “Filippo Turati” in Florence were friendly and professional in their assistance, as was the president of the Archivio Silone in Pescina, Professor Franca Mazzali. A special thanks to archivists Sebastiana Ferrari and Martorano Di Cesare and the entire staff of the Centro Studi Ignazio Silone in Pescina.
Thanks as well to the staff of the International Institute for Social History, Amsterdam, and the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscripts Library at Yale University. I must acknowledge the work of Peter Kamber of Switzerland for maintaining a website containing hundreds of documents relating to Silone’s work with the OSS and Ruth Stalder of the Schweizerisches Bundesarchiv in Bern, who kindly provided me with important documents concerning Silone’s Swiss exile. I am indebted to Nadia Zonis of Columbia University, Elisabetta Zini of New York University, and Dr. Paul Arpaia for spending hours in the archives photocopying documents.
Professor Giuseppe Tamburrano kindly sent me books, essays, and articles from Italy, as did Professor Lamberto Mercuri of Rome.
The late Darina Silone was gracious in granting me several interviews and maintained a spirited correspondence with me until her death in 2003. Don Flavio Peloso, current director of St. Luigi Orione’s Order of Divine Providence, shared with me documents and his memories of Darina Silone’s last days. The Romolo Tranquilli Jr. I thank here and cite in the notes is not, obviously, Silone’s brother who died in 1932 but the son of Pomponio Tranquilli, Silone’s cousin, today living in Rome. I thank him for permission to consult documents and reproduce photos from his personal archive.
At Hofstra University I am fortunate to have the support of faculty and administrators, especially Dr. Herman A. Berliner, Provost; Dr. Bernard J. Firestone, Dean of the Hofstra College of Liberal Arts and Sciences; and the staff of the Joan and Donald E. Axinn Library. A special thanks to the Friday afternoon reading group organized by Dr. Massoud Fazeli for allowing me to present my work in progress. The research for this book was made possible by Hofstra research grants and a Presidential Award. I thank my colleagues in the History Department for creating a stimulating environment to work in and my mentor, Dr. Pellegrino D’Acierno, for intellectual guidance. Harris Manchester College at the University of Oxford awarded me a fellowship in the summer of 2004 that facilitated research and writing.
A special thanks to the members of the Society for Italian Historical Studies, especially Roy Domenico, Charles Killinger, and Walter Adamson, whose encouragement and criticism at the January 2007 meeting of the American Historical Association are greatly appreciated.
Professor Liliana Biondi of the Università d’Aquila, Professor Vittoriano Esposito, Professor Santa Casciani of John Carroll University, and Davide Bidussa, Director of the Fondazione Feltrinelli, Milan, all lent support to the project. For their encouragement and generous gifts of time, advice, and sharing of documents, thanks to Dr. Maria Nicolai Paynter of Hunter College, Michael P. McDonald, formerly of the National Endowment for the Humanities, translator William Weaver at Bard College, Dr. Deborah Holmes of the Ludwig Boltzmann Institut für Geschischte und Theorie der Biografie in Vienna, and Dr. Elizabeth Leake of Rutgers University.
Diocleziano Giardini, custodian of the town’s history and the memory of Silone, was my guide in Pescina. Mille grazie to the people of Pescina who shared with me their generosity of spirit with warm welcomes on my winter visits. With the sharing of St. Anthony’s bread on January 17, we became, as Silone would have said, (cum pane) companions.
A different version of chapter eight appeared as “The Double Bind of Ignazio Silone: Between Archive and Hagiography,” in Culture, Censorship and the State in Twentieth-Century Italy, edited by Guido Bonsaver and Robert S. C. Gordon (Oxford: Legenda, 2005), pp. 142–48. A segment of chapter three appeared as “Ignazio Silone’s Dark Night of the Soul,” in Ignazio Silone, Memoir from a Swiss Prison (Merrick, NY: Cross-Cultural Communications, 2006), pp. 1–14, as well as in the summer 2006 issue of Dissent magazine. Passages of chapter five appeared in “Ignazio Silone and America,” in the inaugural issue of the Harvard College Journal of Italian American History and Culture 1, no. 1 (Winter 2007): 8–11, edited by P. Justin Rossi and Sabino Ciorciari. My translation of Silone’s short story “At the Foot of an Almond Tree” first appeared in Words Without Borders (July 2005) at www.wordswithoutborders.org.
Thanks also to Dr. Martin Schaden of Rutgers University for assistance in translating German documents. I am indebted to Antony Shugaar for help with some tricky Italian–English translations, always mindful of the old Italian proverb “Il traduttore è un traditore” (The translator is a traitor). Although hoping that I have not betrayed Silone, I will not go so far as Jorge Luis Borges, who wrote that “El original es infiel a la tradución” (The original is unfaithful to the translation).
Finally, an insufficient word of profound gratitude to my parents and extended family but especially to Jennifer, Alessandro, and Giulia for their patience as I wandered among archives and small towns far from home.
Index
Aaron, Raymond, 219
Abruzzese Peasants’ Youth Federation, 61, 65
Abruzzo region, 3, 19–23, 25–26, 67, 175, 284, 286, 289, 314, 336; Christmas in, 37–38; emigration from, 26, 32, 34, 212, 215; family property holdings in, 12; Gregorovius’s views on, 25; invasion considered for, 159; monasteries in, 265–68; politics in, 32–33, 186, 210; Roman expedition of politicians and journalists to, 25; Silone as representative of, 186; Silone’s post-exile return to, 186; in Silone’s work, 4, 6, 135, 136, 176, 216; wolves in, 19–21, 48; see also Fucino plain; Marsica region; Pescina
Abruzzo Trilogy, The (Silone), xv–xvi; see also Bread and Wine; Fontamara; Seed Beneath the Snow, The
Action Party, 187
Agenzia Stefani, 167–68
Agnon, S. Y., 263
agrarian leagues, 46, 59
agriculture, 26, 32, 59
AILC, 246, 253
Ajello, Nello, 219–20
Alain, 281
Albania, Italy’s defeat in, 144, 151
Albergo dei Poveri (Hotel of the Poor), 80–81
Alfonsi, Ferdinando, 214
Algeria, 238, 242, 246, 260–61, 265
Aliano, 23
almond trees, 334–37
Altman, Georges, 205
“Altra America” (Pasolini), 220
/> Amendola, Giovanni, 310
American Historical Association, Ellis’s address to, xviii–xix
American Labor Federation, 155
American Labor Party, 157
Amici dell’Università, 198
amoral familism, theory of, 353n
anarchism, anarchists, 8, 140, 240, 273; Brupbacher’s sympathy for, 99; French, 77, 183; in Italy, 22, 29, 63, 72, 84, 183, 256; Milan bombing and, 84, 256; Spanish, 77, 78–79; in Switzerland, 146, 148
Anders, Wladyslaw, 243
Anderson, Sherwood, 212
And He Hid Himself (Silone), 9, 176–77, 306, 320, 323
Anissimov, Ivan, 225, 226–27, 280, 370n
anticommunism, 133, 237, 327; of Silone, 160, 185, 201, 208, 247
Anti-Fascist Alliance, 157
anti-Fascists, 241; in The Fox and the Camelias, 230; in Italy, see Italy, anti-fascism in; in London, 160; see also Silone, Ignazio, anti-fascism of
anti-Semitism, 132, 178, 376n
Antoni, Carlo, 198, 205
Antonini, Luigi, 157
Antonioni, Michelangelo, 218
Apennine mountains, 24, 34
Aquila, L’, 25, 27, 62, 87
Arab refugees, 252
Argentina, 184
Aron, Raymond, 253
Arp, Hans, 107
art, 128; disillusionment with, 9; impure, 119; Silone’s lack of theory about, 64, 140
Ascalesi, Cardinal Alessio, 119
Association of American Writers, 150
Atlas, James, xvi
Attente de Dieu (Weil), 281, 282
“At the Foot of an Almond Tree” (Silone), 334–37
“At the Grave of Silone” (Clifton), ix–x
Attlee, Clement, 190
Auden, W. H., 220, 236
Austria, 239; anschluss of, 150, 276
Austria-Hungary, Austrians, 43, 60
autobiographical writing, xvii, 4–5, 6, 30, 46; biographies as, xvii, xviii; in Bread and Wine, 348n; of Darina, 164; of d’Eramo, 330; in “Emergency Exit,” 23, 329–30; in Fontamara, 4, 112, 114, 358n; in Fox and the Camelias, 4, 111; in Handful of Blackberries, 207; in Seed Beneath the Snow, 8, 348n; Zurich in, 105
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