by Lee McIntyre
Data manipulation
cherry picking, 49, 82, 111, 153–154, 162–163, 173, 188, 218n5, 240n7
data fabrication/falsification, 82–85, 133–138
data sharing and replication, 105–112, 189
scientific attitude and, 133–138
Deception
intentional deception, 82–83, 237n29
self-deception, 83–84, 141–142, 150, 237n22
Decision procedure, 62, 211n26
Deductive logic, 14–16, 30
Deer, Brian, 145–146
Defending science, 2, 51, 202–205
Degrees of freedom, 83–84, 93, 96, 108, 112, 137, 188
DeLaplante, Kevin, 91, 113
Demarcation criterion
behavior and, 221n39
Boudry on, 24, 26–28, 208n7, 213n45, 224n28, 224n32
demarcation debate, 26–27, 71–73, 77–79, 210n11, 212n27, 220n28, 222n14
falsifiability and, 210n18
family resemblance concept, 24–26, 77–79
fertility and, 224n23
Kuhn on, 18–19, 211n20
Laudan on, 11, 20–21, 21–23, 75, 76
necessary and sufficient conditions and, 21–23, 25–28, 65–70, 222n6, 224n23, 224n26
nonmethodological criteria and, 210n18
nonscience and, 70–73
pseudoscience and, 70–73
science and, 70–73, 223nn18–19
scientific attitude and, 50, 65–70, 76–79
scientific method and, 10–11, 210n18
territorial problem, the, 26–27, 213n45, 224n28
values of science and, 48, 58–59, 90, 220n28
Denialism. See also Climate change
AIDS denial, 239n3, 241n21
conspiracy theories, 151, 154–155, 158
doubt and, 242n41
gullibility and, 155–159, 174–175
moon landing and, 154–155
openness and, 158–159
pseudoscience and, 150, 155–159
Sagan’s matrix and, 152–155
scientific theory and, 149–150
skepticism and, 155–159, 240n17, 242n41
use of term, 149–150, 238n1
Descarte, René, 45, 156–157, 217n38
Discovery Institute, 178
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 40
Duhem–Quine thesis, 19, 31, 216n36
Dupree, Cydney, 194–196, 198–199
Durkheim, Emile, 75–76, 190
Eddington, Arthur, 15, 213n3
Einstein, Albert
Popper on, 15
scientific attitude and, 57–58, 213n3
on scientific philosophy, 207n5
theory of general relativity, 15–16, 19, 31–32, 38, 213n3
Error
cold fusion debacle, 56–57, 100–105, 111, 141, 229n62
critical community and, 85–91
data sharing, 105–112, 189
degrees of freedom and, 83–84, 93, 96, 108, 112, 137, 188
fraud and, 107–108, 134–136
intentionality and, 82, 236nn11–12, 237n29
irreproducibility, 108–111
peer review and, 56, 62, 85–91, 98–105, 112–113, 229n55
p-hacking, 83, 93–98, 99, 108–112, 137, 182, 227n33, 228n47, 231n97, 235n5
quantitative methods and, 91–98
replicability and, 105–112
retraction, 98–99, 143, 230n77
scientific theory and, 134
self-deception and, 83–84, 141–142, 150, 237n22
statcheck, 228n54
unintentional error, 82–83
Evidence
ambiguity of, 217n3
backfire effect, 187–190, 240n27
Bayesian, 50, 96, 218n7, 218nn7–8, 227n31
conspiracy theories and, 155
explanation and, 201–203, 218n7
falsifiability and, 218n7
frequentist approach, 50, 218nn8–9, 227n31
ideology and, 20, 170–171
induction, 218n7
justification and, 48, 150–151, 157–158, 165, 215n28
Kuhn on, 48, 58–59, 208n9, 214n14, 215n20, 244n66
Popper on, 15–16, 35
proof, 34, 46, 156, 158, 163
pseudoscience and, 175
reasoning and, 218n5
scientific attitude and, 46, 48–50, 56–57
scientific medicine and, 117
scientific theory and, 34–35, 54, 188, 207n6
social science and, 187–190, 194–199
statistical approaches, 218n8, 227n29, 227n31, 229n31
subjectivist evidence, 3–4, 18, 33, 50, 186, 193–194, 209n9, 218n9, 228n49
theory choice and, 18–19, 48, 208n9, 244n66
trustworthiness/warmth study, 194–196, 198–199
truth and, 21–22, 29
warranted belief and, 46, 217n37
Evolutionary theory. See also Intelligent design theory (ID)
evolutionary biology and, 22, 208n8, 212n31, 221n4, 222n8
natural selection and, 16, 37, 40–41, 54, 164, 166, 168, 175, 179–180, 208n8, 210n14, 745
Experimentation, 55, 116, 123, 188, 194–199
Fact and Fraud (Goodstein), 235n1, 235n6, 236n16, 236nn10–11
Fallibilism doctrine, 42–43, 157, 216n30, 216n32
Falsifiability. See also Evidence
creation science and, 16–17
demarcation criterion and, 210n18
evidence and, 218n7
fraud and, 135–138, 138–140
inductive reasoning and, 12
intentionality and, 135–138
Kuhn on, 32–33
as logical, 214n10
Popper on, 3, 12–13, 15–16, 17, 22–23, 31–35, 57–58, 213n1, 214n10, 219n23
scientific method and, 21–22
scientific misconduct and, 82–85, 133–138
scientific theory and, 29–34
social science as, 186–187
use of term, 214n10
Feleppa, Robert, 221n3
Feyerabend, Paul, 4, 20, 23, 211n22
Feynman, Richard, 35, 46, 48, 207n5, 217n2
Fiske, Susan, 194–196, 198–199
Flat Earth example, 164–165, 180, 215n28, 242n47
Fleming, Alexander, 128–130
Flexner, Abraham, 124–125
Florey, Howard, 128–129, 130
Folly of Fools (Trivers), 150, 236n14
Fraud
accountability for, 140–143
consequences of, 145–147
error and, 107–108, 134–136
fabrication and, 135–138
fabrication of data and, 82–85, 135–138
fakes vs. frauds, 244n69
falsifiability and, 135–138, 138–140
fraud vs. error, 134–135
intentionality and, 134–135, 138–140, 236nn11–12
irreproducibility and, 91, 93, 106–112, 114, 189, 230n77
research misconduct and, 140–143
scientific attitude and, 133–138
scientific community and, 140–147
scientific error vs., 134–135
use of term, 133–134, 235n6, 244n69
vaccine-autism debacle and, 5, 82, 143–147, 238nn42–43, 240n20
willful ignorance and, 134–138
“Gaining Trust as Well as Respect” (Fiske and Dupree), 194–196, 198–199
Galen, 117, 128
Galileo, 36, 55, 71, 113, 165, 171, 219n19, 222n13, 242n47
Geertz, Clifford, 190
Germ theory of disease, 53, 55, 120–123, 233n38
Giere, Ron, 94
Gleick, James, 123
Goodman, Nelson, 45, 217n38
Goodstein, David, 138, 141, 235n1, 235n8, 236n16, 236nn10–11
Gould, Stephen Jay, 243n65
Gravity, 36–38, 41, 168
Hansson, Sven Ove, 26, 71, 77, 89, 211n20, 220n28
Hauser, Marc, 140
Head, Megan, 95–96, 228
n47
Hempel, Carl, 52
Hicks, Daniel, 220n35, 221n37
History of Medicine (Bynum), 116–117
Huizenga, John, 101, 105
Hume, David, 12
Huxley, Thomas Henry, 178
Hwang Woo-suk, 237n17
Ideology. See also Denialism
belief systems and, 115–116, 131–132, 149–151, 151–155, 179–180, 240n22
conspiracy theories and, 151, 154–155, 158
critical communities and, 172–173
error and, 172–173
evidence and, 20, 170–171
ideological infection, 188
social science and, 179–180, 187–191, 191–194
willful ignorance and, 151–155
Imanishi-Kari, Thereza, 237n18
Immigration costs, 188
Inductive reasoning
affirming the consequent, 14
certainty and, 12
counterinduction, 216n29
evidence and, 218n7
falsifiability and, 12
inductive inference, 11–12, 14
Kuhn on, 30
modus ponens, 12–13
modus tollens, 14–16, 30
pessimistic induction, 134, 216n29
Popper on, 14, 16, 29–31
pragmatic vindication, 43–44, 44–45, 217n37
probability and, 33, 42–43, 209n8, 217n37
problem of induction, 12, 16, 20, 30, 33, 42–44, 209n6, 209n8
scientific method and, 11–12, 14–15, 33–34
scientific theory and, 30–31
warrant of induction, 45, 217n38, 217n40
Intelligent design theory (ID), 5–6, 24, 132, 150, 175–180, 244n76. See also Creationism; Evolutionary theory
Intentionality
error and, 82–83, 236nn11–12, 237n29
falsifiability and, 135–138
fraud and, 134–135, 138–140, 236nn11–12
intentional deception, 82–83, 237n29
scientific attitude and, 221n39
willful ignorance and, 82–83, 237n29
Interpretation of Cultures (Geertz), 190
Ioannidis, John, 108
Iyengar, Sheena, 196, 197–198
Jahn, Robert, 180, 183
Jenner, Edward, 232n14
Justification
evidence and, 48, 150–151, 157–158, 165, 215n28
logical justification and, 9–10, 62–63
rational justification, 51, 62–63
of science, 150–151, 202, 203, 215n28
scientific attitude and, 202, 203
scientific method and, 9–10, 18–19, 202
scientific theory and, 62–63, 215n28
Kahneman, Daniel, 84, 158
Karl, Thomas, 160, 162
Kepler’s theory, 31, 36–37
Kitcher, Phillip, 224n30
Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, 24, 176–180, 245n79, 245n85, 245n87
Koch, Robert, 55, 115, 121, 123, 131
Koertge, Noretta, 60, 89, 219n15, 219n20
Kuhn, Thomas
criterion of demarcation and, 18–19, 211n20
empirical evidence and, 48, 58–59, 208n9, 214n14, 215n20, 244n66
falsifiability and, 32–33
induction and, 30
on Merton, 220n28
negative outcomes and, 22
normal science and, 3–4, 19–20, 32–33, 211nn20–21
paradigm shifts, 3–4, 19–20, 32–33, 124, 204, 208n9
on Popper, 18–20, 211n20
science and nonscience, 18–19, 211n20
on science as special, 18–19, 59
scientific attitude and, 57, 58–59
scientific explanation and, 4, 41
scientific method and, 18, 211n19
social science and, 4, 58–59
theory choice and, 3–4, 18–19, 33, 48, 208n9, 244n66
values of science, 48, 58–59, 90, 220n28
Kurtz, Paul, 18–19, 48, 208n9, 244n66
Langmuir, Irving, 141
Laudan, Larry
on creationism, 23–24
meta-argument, 25–26, 212n27, 224n26
on necessary and sufficient conditions, 11, 20–21, 65–66, 77, 79, 212n27, 222n6, 224n26
Pigliucci on, 25–26
on Popper, 23–24, 66
on problem of demarcation, 11, 20–21, 21–23, 75, 76
pseudoscience and, 27, 70–71
Le Fanu, James, 129
Lepper, Mark, 197–198
Le Verrier, Urbain, 31, 32
Lister, Joseph, 55, 115, 121, 232n3
Logic
necessary and sufficient conditions and, 65–70, 71–73, 221nn2–3
Popper on, 3, 14–15, 19, 31–32, 59, 214n10
Logical Empiricism, 20, 52
Logical Positivism, 11, 12, 20, 70–71, 186, 190–191, 209n5, 210n18
Logic of Scientific Discovery (Popper), 3, 27, 70–71, 214n8
Longino, Helen, 89–90, 226n26
Lyne, Andres, 147–148
Maddox, John, 103–104
March for Science (2017), 2
Marcus, Adam, 99
Matzke, Nicholas, 245n79
Mayo, Deborah, 50, 218nn8–9, 227n31
Medicine as a science
childbed fever exemplar, 52–57, 120, 155, 169, 171, 191, 198, 224n34, 247n13
clinical practice and, 121–122, 122–131
evidence and, 117
experimentation and, 55, 115–116, 123
germ theory of disease, 53, 55, 120–123, 233n38
medical education, 120, 123–128, 131
nonscientific outlook of, 116–117
science of human behavior and, 192–194
scientific attitude and, 52–57, 115–116, 128–131
social science and, 191–194
willingness to change theory and, 116
Megaflood theory, 166–173, 175, 243n62, 243nn52–53
Meigs, Charles, 123
Merton, Robert, 219n22, 220n28, 240n23
Misconduct. See also Deception; Fraud
confidentiality and, 236n16
critical communities and, 85–91
data fabrication, 82–85, 133–138
quantitative methods and, 91–98
use of term, 235n1
Modus ponens, 12–13
Modus tollens, 14–16, 30
Morgenbesser, Sidney, 223n18
Motivated reasoning, 112, 163, 169
Necessary and sufficient conditions
Laudan on, 11, 20–21, 65–66, 77, 79, 212n27, 222n6, 224n26
logic and, 65–70, 71–73, 221nn2–3
meta-arguments of, 25, 212n27, 224n26
nonscience and, 222n14
Pigliucci on, 222n11
Popper on, 66, 221n3, 224n24
problem of demarcation and, 21–23, 25–28, 65–70, 222n6, 222n11, 224n23, 224n26
scientific attitude and, 65–70, 73–76, 223n20
New Atlantis (Bacon), 60
New Organon (Bacon), 59–60
Newtonian theory, 3, 31–32, 186, 203
Nickles, Thomas, 211n20, 214n9, 224n23
Nonscience
Boudry on, 26–27, 71, 213n45, 224n28, 224n32
demarcation and, 70–73
everyday inquiry and, 73–75
evolutionary biology and, 22, 208n8, 212n31, 221n4, 222n8
Kuhn on, 18–19, 211n20
necessary and sufficient conditions and, 222n14
Popper on, 12, 27, 70–71, 208n8, 210n11, 212n30, 213n45
the territorial problem and, 26–27, 213n45, 224n28
Nonsense on Stilts (Pigliucci), 169, 182
Nosek, Brian, 108–111
Novella, Steven, 97–98
Nuitjen, Michèle B., 228n54
Null hypothesis, 92–93, 96, 181–182
Nyhan, Brendan, 240n27
Objectivity, 51, 59, 89–90, 193, 211n24
Okasha, Samor, 31
Oransky, Ivan, 9
9
Oreskes, Naomi, 159, 241n31
Paradigm shifts, 3–4, 19–20, 32–33, 124, 204, 208n9
Park, Robert, 141
Pastafarianism, 180
Pasteur, Louis, 55, 115, 120–121, 123–124, 128, 130, 131, 198
Pathological science, 141–142, 151
Peer review, 56, 62, 85–91, 98–105, 112–113, 229n55
Peirce, Charles S, 216n30
Penicillin discovery, 128–131
P-hacking, 83, 93–98, 99, 108–112, 137, 182, 227n33, 228n47, 231n97, 235n5
Philosophy of Pseudoscience (Pigliucci and Boudry), 24–27, 208n7, 221n39, 222n11
Pigliucci, Massimo
family resemblance concept, 24–26, 77–79
on Laudan, 25–26
necessary and sufficient conditions and, 222n11
PEAR lab research and, 181–182, 246n93
on problem of demarcation, 24–26, 77–79, 222n11, 223n19, 224n28, 224n32
scientism and, 224n28
on skepticism, 159
Pons, B. Stanley, 56, 100–105, 229n67
Popper, Karl
corroboration and, 33, 42, 214nn8–9
on Einstein, 15, 31–32
empirical evidence, 15–16, 35
on evolutionary biology, 22, 208n8, 212n31, 221n4, 222n8
falsifiability, 3, 12–13, 15–16, 17, 22–23, 31–35, 57–58, 213n1, 214n10, 219n23
induction and, 14, 16, 29–31
Kuhn on, 18–20, 211n20
Laudan on, 23–24, 66
logic of science and, 3, 14–15, 19, 31–32, 59, 214n10
methodology of science and, 3, 12, 186
necessary and sufficient conditions and, 66, 221n3, 224n24
Nickles on, 214n9
positive instances and, 42, 94
science, nonscience, and pseudoscience, 12, 27, 70–71, 208n8, 210n11, 212n30, 213n45
on science as special, 58–59
on science of human behavior, 208n11
the scientific attitude and, 57–58, 219n23
on the scientific method, 3, 17–18
skepticism and, 157
on social science, 5, 186–187
values of science, 58–59
verification and, 11–12, 16, 33
Porter, Roy, 117, 131, 232n13, 233n22, 233n30
Positive instances, 42, 43–44, 46, 94
Pragmatic vindication of warranted belief, 44–45, 217n37
Princeton Engineering Anomolies Research (PEAR) lab, 180–184
Probability
frequentist interpretation, 50, 218n9
problem of induction and, 12, 16, 20, 30, 33, 42–44, 209n6, 209n8
p-values and, 92–95, 181
subjectivist interpretation, 50, 218n9
Proof, 34, 46, 150–151, 156, 158, 163, 202, 203, 215n28. See also Certainty; Truth
