EPILOGUE: AFTER THE DINOSAURS
I told a small sliver of the New Mexico story in my Scientific American article on the rise of mammals (June 2016, 313: 28–35), coauthored with Zhe-Xi Luo. Luo is one of the world’s experts on the early evolution of mammals. More important, he’s a very generous and lovely guy. Like Walter Alvarez, Luo was on the receiving end of one of my brazen teenage requests. In the spring of 1999, when I was just turning fifteen, my family and I were set to take an Easter vacation to the Pittsburgh area. I wanted to visit the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, but not content with seeing only the exhibits, I desperately wanted a behind-the-scenes tour. I had read about Luo’s discoveries of early mammals in the newspaper, then saw his contact details on the museum’s website, so I got in touch. For an hour, he led my family and me on a tour of the bowels of the museum storehouse, and he still asks about my parents and brothers every time I see him.
My dear friend, colleague, and mentor Tom Williamson has made a career out of studying the Paleocene mammals of New Mexico, as well as the early evolution of placental mammals more generally. His magnum opus—which resulted from his PhD work—is his 1996 monograph on the anatomy, ages, and evolution of Paleocene mammals from New Mexico (Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, 8: 1–141). Over the last few years, Tom has been leading me deeper into the dark side of mammalian paleontology. We’ve done joint fieldwork since 2011 and have started to publish some papers together, including a genealogy of primitive marsupials (Williamson et al., Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 2012, 10: 625–51) and the description of a new species of beaver-size plant-eating mammal called Kimbetopsalis (the Primeval Beaver, as we cheekily call it), which lived just a few hundred thousand years after the dinosaurs died (Williamson et al., Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2016, 177: 183–208). Tom and I currently co-supervise a PhD student who works on the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction and the rise of mammals afterward: Sarah Shelley. Look out for her.
Index
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Page numbers in italics refer to images.
Africa
formation of, 93, 143, 145, 152, 230
Sereno expeditions, 149–157
Age of Dinosaurs, 99, 315
The Age of Reptiles (Zallinger mural), 122–125, 123
Albertosaurus, 172, 215–216, 222
Alioramus, 164, 165
Allosaurus, ix, 136–139, 144, 156, 185
Morrison Formation, 129, 131, 134, 135, 141
Alvarez, Walter, 319–327, 322
angiosperms, 245
ankylosaurs, ix, 100, 116, 141, 147, 246
Apatosaurus, 131, 140, 142
Archaeopteryx, 267, 274–275, 276, 279, 303
archosaurs
bird line, 30, 73, 285
crocodile line, 30, 72–76, 75
upright posture, 28, 30, 31, 72
Argentina, 37–43, 52, 58, 59, 60, 61
Argentinosaurus, 112, 146
asteroid strike, 309–319, 316, 349
Alvarez research, 319–327, 322
as cause of extinction, 328–339
mammal emergence, 343–349, 345, 346
avemetatarsalians, 30, 73
Averianov, Alexander, 173–176, 188
bacteria, 19, 20
Bakker, Robert, 76–77, 276–281
Balanoff, Amy, 218
Balaur bondoc, 260–261, 263–265, 264
Barosaurus, 135, 140, 142
size estimation, 110–117, 111
Barrett, Paul, 330
basins (rift basins), 92–99
Bates, Karl, 110, 111
Batrachotomus, 75
Benton, Mike, 351–352
Bever, Gabe, 218
birds
archosaur origins, 30, 73, 285
colors of feathers, 296–297
Cretaceous asteroid, 309, 312, 314–315, 336, 338
digitigrade tracks, 31
as dinosaurs, 8, 269–272, 275–281, 286, 339
evolution of, ix, 281–286, 283, 289–305, 304
lung efficiencies, 115, 212–213
nests, 288, 289, 300
theropod origins, 40, 65, 282–284, 283, 285
body fossils, 19
body weight estimation, 109–117, 111
Bone Wars, 64–65, 130–134, 131, 132, 133, 136
Brachiosaurus, ix, 100, 112, 129, 139, 142, 146, 252
Brazil, 59, 60, 94, 246–254, 249
Brontosaurus, ix, 100, 146, 252
Morrison Formation, 129, 131, 139, 142
size of, 111, 112, 113
Brown, Barnum, 134–135, 168–171, 169, 172, 215, 233
Burch, Sara, 127, 214–215
Butler, Ian, 217, 218
Butler, Richard, 23, 24, 27–28, 53–59, 57, 329–335
Camarasaurus, 139, 140, 142
Cambrian Period, 20–21
Camptosaurus, 135, 141
Candeiro, Roberto, 247–254, 249
carbon dioxide, 17, 50, 71, 94, 187, 314
Carcharodontosaurus, 150, 151–153, 154–157, 187–188, 189, 250
Carr, Thomas, 224–225, 241
CAT scans, 6, 173, 188, 207, 209, 211, 216–220, 217
Cenozoic Era, viii
ceratopsians, 132, 238–239, 242. See also Triceratops
Ceratosaurus, 131, 141, 187
Challands, Tom, 102, 105, 106
China
fossil abundance, 143, 161
Liaoning birds, 303–305, 304
Liaoning feathered dinosaurs, 280–284, 283, 291–292
Sinosauropteryx, 279–280
Zhenyuanlong, 1, 3–6, 7
See also tyrannosaurs; Xu, Xing
Chinle Formation (US), 62–68
cladistic analysis, 156
clathrates, 94–95
Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry (Utah), 134
climate
Permian volcanoes, 15–18
Triassic desert-living dinosaurs, 61–71
Triassic dinosaur sauna, 50–52
Triassic humid dinosaur zone, 59–61, 81
Triassic hyperseasonality, 71, 81
Triassic megamonsoons, 51–52, 81, 95
Triassic Pangea splitting, 87, 94–95
Jurassic Pangea splitting, 97–98
Cretaceous, 145, 187, 229, 328
Cretaceous asteroid, 314, 318
Coelophysis, ix, 47, 65–66, 67, 74
Colbert, Edwin, 65, 76
comet strike. See asteroid strike
convergence, 72–77
Cope, Edward Drinker, 64–65, 130–133, 131, 132
coprolites, 20, 126, 202, 204
Cretaceous Period, viii
Brazil basin, 246–254, 249
carnivores, 187–188, 189
continents, 190–191, 229–232
dinosaur diversity, 231–232, 245–246, 334–335, 343, 349
dinosaur extinction, 18, 187, 202, 272, 309–319, 316, 349
flowering plants, 245
fossils lacking, 186, 187
Jurassic transition, 144–148, 156, 180, 229
Paleogene after, 321, 322, 323–327, 334, 344
Sahara Desert fossils, 149–157
sauropods, 145–147, 246, 252–253
See also asteroid strike; Hell Creek Formation; tyrannosaurs
crocodiles
archosaur origins, 30, 72–76, 75
Cretaceous asteroid, 312, 314, 336, 337
Cretaceous Brazil, 253
dinosaur convergence, 69, 72–77, 75, 98–99
dinosaur morphological disparity, 78–81
outnumbering dinosaurs, 60, 77, 96–97
researchers of, 63
Triassic species, 73–74, 339
Csiki-Sava, Zoltán, 261, 333
Currie, Phil, 215–216, 279–280
Darwin,
Charles, 272–275
Deinonychus, 123, 278–280, 284, 300
desert-living dinosaurs, 61–71
dicynodonts, 14–15, 16, 25, 38, 60, 61, 98
digitigrade tracks, 31
Dilong, 178, 179, 180, 183–184, 201
Dinosaur National Monument (US), 134
dinosauromorphs, 31–35, 36, 49, 69, 85, 115
dinosaurs, ix
Age of the Dinosaurs, 99, 315
archosaur origins, 30, 72–73
archosaur upright posture, 28, 30, 31, 72
Cambrian ancestors, 21
Cretaceous diversity, 231–232, 245–246, 334–335, 343
Cretaceous extinction, 18, 187, 202, 272, 309–319, 316, 349
crocodile convergence, 69, 72–77, 75, 98–99
crocodile morphological disparity, 78–81
digitigrade tracks, 31
eggs and nests, 221, 288, 337
global uniformity of Jurassic, 143–144
Great Hall of Dinosaurs, 121–125, 123
growth of, 221–223
largest, 146, 197
Mesozoic Era, 20, 330
oceans unconquered, 231
Pangean split survival, 98–100
size estimation, 109–113, 111
size explanations, 113–117, 206–208
stereotypes wrong, 5, 8
timeline, viii, 20
true dinosaur definition, 32
true dinosaurs, 33–35, 36, 37–43, 52, 85
weekly discoveries, 5–6, 174
Diplodocus, 100, 146, 252
Morrison Formation, 131, 135, 139, 140, 142
distance matrix, 79–80
Earth, x
Jurassic into Cretaceous, 144–148, 229
Cretaceous asteroid, 309–319, 316, 336–338
Cretaceous continents, 190–191, 229–232
life evolutionary history, 20–21
Pangea, 49–52. See also Pangea
rift basins, 92–99
timeline of geological history, viii, 20
See also climate
Edmontosaurus, ix, 100, 116, 243–245, 307
Effigia okeeffeae (pseudosuchian), 74–77
encephalization quotient (EQ), 219
Eocarcharia, 152, 155
Eodromaeus, 41, 42
Eoraptor, 40–41, 42, 44, 49, 52, 56
Eotyrannus, 180, 185
Erickson, Greg, 205–206, 221–223
extinction. See mass extinction
Ezcurra, Martín, 69–70
Falkingham, Peter, 110, 111
family tree of dinosaurs, ix, 45
building, 63, 153–157
dinosauromorphs, 31–32
feathers
Archaeopteryx, 267, 274, 276, 279
colors of, 296–297
Dilong, 183–184, 201
evolution of, 291–300
Liaoning feathered dinosaurs, 280–284, 283, 291–292
ornithomimosaurs, 293–295
Psittacosaurus, 185, 292
Sinornithosaurus, 283
Sinosauropteryx, 279–280, 292
T. rex, 184, 193, 195, 200–201
Yutyrannus, 183–184, 201
Zhenyuanlong, 1, 4–6, 7
finite element analysis (FEA), 207–208
geological timeline, viii, 20
Giganotosaurus, 152, 155, 157, 198
Giraffatitan, 111
Gobi Desert (Mongolia), 286–290, 287, 288
Gondwana, 143, 145, 152, 230
gorgonopsians, 15, 16, 18, 25
Gorgosaurus, 172, 182, 222
greenhouse effect, 17, 50, 71, 94, 187, 314
grid map, 240, 241
Guanlong, 176–178, 179, 185
hadrosaurs, 146–147, 243–245, 330, 334–335. See also Edmontosaurus
Hayden Quarry (New Mexico), 66–68, 67, 70–71, 73–74
Hell Creek Formation (Montana)
Burpee Museum expedition, 235–237, 239–246, 240, 244
Cretaceous asteroid, 309–319, 316, 331–332, 334
Cretaceous fossils, 232–234, 250
Henderson, Mike, 234–246
Herrerasaurus, 39–40, 42, 43, 44, 49, 52, 79
Horner, Jack, 138
Howe Quarry (Wyoming), 128–129, 134–139
humid dinosaur zone, 59–61, 81
Hutchinson, John, 210–212
Huxley, Thomas Henry, 275
hyperseasonality of Triassic, 71, 81
ice ages, 20
Iguanodon, ix, 32, 108, 146
India, 59, 60, 230–231, 313, 318, 328
invertebrate paleontology, 78
Irmis, Randy, 63–68
Ischigualasto (Argentina), 37–43, 52, 58, 59, 60, 100–101
island dwarfism, 257–258
island predator weirdness, 261, 263–265, 264
Isle of Skye (Scotland), 101–107, 104, 105
Jurassic Period, viii
Age of the Dinosaurs, 99
Archaeopteryx, 267, 274–275, 276, 284, 303
Cretaceous transition, 144–148, 156, 180, 229
fossil abundance, 125, 143
global uniformity, 143–144
Isle of Skye sauropods, 101–102, 105, 106–107
Newark Basin, 92–99
Pangea rift volcanoes, 97–100
Pangea split slow, 143–144, 180
tracks at Holy Cross Mountains, 24
tracks at Isle of Skye, 105, 106–107
tracks at Watchung Mountains, 89–92, 96–99
Triassic transition, 91–92, 96
tyrannosaur emergence, 166, 175
Zallinger mural, 121–125, 123
See also Morrison Formation
Kileskus, 172–176, 177
Laurasia, 143
Lloyd, Graeme, 301–302
Lü, Junchang, 3–5, 7, 163–164
lung efficiency, 115–116, 212–213, 290
mammals, 341
Triassic ancestors, 58, 61, 81
Cretaceous asteroid, 309, 310–311, 312, 314, 336–337, 338
Cretaceous asteroid survivors, 343–349, 345, 346
proto-mammal synapsids, 25, 26
mantle, 15–18
map of prehistoric Earth, x
Mapusaurus, 152, 157
Marsh, Othniel Charles, 64–65, 130, 133, 136
Marshosaurus, 141
Martínez, Ricardo, 40–43, 70
mass extinction
Permian volcanoes, 15–18, 26, 52, 57, 87, 338–339
Triassic Pangea splitting, 87, 91, 95, 99, 339
Cretaceous asteroid, 309–315, 336, 344, 349
Cretaceous asteroid evidence, 328–335
Cretaceous dinosaurs, 18, 187, 202, 272, 315, 334, 336–339
Cretaceous into Paleogene, 321, 322, 323–324, 334
tracks at Holy Cross Mountains, 24, 26
upright posture and, 30
Mateus, Octávio, 54–59, 57
Megalosaurus, 32, 108
megamonsoons, 51–52, 81, 95
melanosomes, 296–297
Mesozoic Era, viii
as dinosaur era, 20, 99, 336, 344, 347
dinosaur species census, 330
mammal emergence, 346–349
meteor strike. See asteroid strike
Metoposaurus (amphibian), 56–57, 58
Microraptor, 280, 293, 297, 298, 299, 305
Morocco, 59, 94–95
morphological disparity, 78–81, 329–335
morphospace, 80
Morrison Formation (US), 125, 127, 128–130
Bone Wars, 130–134, 131, 132, 133
Howe Quarry, 128–129, 134–139
predators, 141
sauropods, 127, 139–140, 141–143
museums
American Museum of Natural History, 167, 168, 170–171, 261, 286–288, 287
Burpee Museum of Natural History, 163, 234–237, 239 –246, 240, 244
Instituto y Museo de Ciencias Naturales, 42–43, 70
Museu d
a Lourinhã, 54
Museum of the Rockies, 138
Natural History Museum (London), 133
Peabody Museum, 121–125, 123
Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology, 294–295
Saurier Museum, 136
Staffin Museum, 103–104
natural selection, 272–275
Nesbitt, Sterling, 63–68, 74–76
Newark Basin (New Jersey), 92, 93–99
niche partitioning, 142–143
Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz, 13, 22–28, 29, 260
Niger expeditions, 150, 151–152, 157
Nigersaurus, 150–151
Nopcsa, Franz, 254–259, 265
Norell, Mark, 236, 261, 287, 291, 351–352
Gobi Desert, 286–290, 287, 288
North America
arid sectors, 59, 62–71
carcharodontosaurs, 152, 187–188, 189
Cretaceous asteroid, 309–319, 316, 334
Cretaceous sea level, 191, 229–230, 233
dinosaur graveyards, 134–135
dinosauromorphs, 69–70
feathered dinosaurs, 293–295
Pangea split, 86, 88–89, 92, 93–94, 143
rift basins, 92–99
sauropod absence, 246, 252
Tyrannosaurus rex, 162, 185, 186, 190–191, 201, 202, 215, 229, 230, 231
oceans
acidity, 17, 95
Atlantic formation, 86
clathrates melting, 94–95
Cretaceous asteroid, 313, 314, 318, 336
Cretaceous climate, 187, 229
Cretaceous sea level, 191, 229–230, 328, 331, 332
Panthalassa, 49, 50
reptiles not dinosaurs, 231
O’Connor, Jingmai, 302–305, 304
Olsen, Paul, 89–92, 96–99
Origin of Species (Darwin), 272, 274
ornithischians
Triassic Pangea, 81
Jurassic after Pangean rift, 97, 100
Cretaceous proliferation, 146–147
as ancestral, ix, 43, 59, 96, 100, 244
lungs and size, 116
Morrison Formation, 141
Ornitholestes, 141, 144
ornithomimosaurs, 246, 293–295, 297
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 167–170, 169, 278
Ostrom, John, 276–281
oviraptors, 243, 246, 288
Pachycephalosaurus, ix, 243, 244
Paleogene Period, viii
Cretaceous asteroid, 321, 322, 323–327, 334, 344
mammal emergence, 343–349, 345, 346
paleomagnetism, 323
Paleozoic Era, viii
Palisades (New Jersey), 88–89
The Rise and Fall of the Dinosaurs Page 31
