by Gregg Herken
Schwartz, Stephen. From West to East: California and the Making of the American Mind. Free Press, 1998.
Schweber, S. S. In the Shadow of the Bomb: Oppenheimer, Bethe, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist. Princeton University Press, 2000.
———. “J. Robert Oppenheimer: Proteus Unbound.” Unpublished manuscript, 2001.
Scobie, Ingrid. Jack B. Tenney: Molder of Anti-Communist Legislation in California, 1940–49. University Microfilms, 1970.
Seaborg, Glenn. Journals. Vols. 1–4, April 19, 1942–May 19, 1946. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1992.
———. Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban. University of California Press, 1981.
Segrè, Emilio. A Mind Always in Motion. University of California Press, 1993.
Seidel, Robert. “Accelerating Science: The Postwar Transformation of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 14, no. 2 (1983).
———. “Accelerators and National Security: The Evolution of Science Policy for High-Energy Physics, 1947–1967.” History and Technology 2 (1994).
———. “The DOE Weapons Laboratories.” Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1992.
———. “The Origins of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.” In Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research. Stanford University Press, 1992.
Serber, Robert, and Robert Crease. The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb. Columbia University Press, 1992.
———. Peace and War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science. University of California Press, 1998.
Sherwin, Martin. A World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and the Grand Alliance. Knopf, 1975.
Smith, Alice Kimball. A Peril and a Hope: The Scientists’ Movement in America, 1945–47. MIT Press, 1971.
Smith, Alice Kimball, and Charles Weiner, eds. Robert Oppenheimer: Letters and Recollections. Harvard University Press, 1980.
Smyth, Henry DeWolf. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb Under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945. Stanford University Press, 1989.
Stern, Phillip. The Oppenheimer Case: Security on Trial. Harper and Row, 1969.
Stewart, George. The Year of the Oath: The Fight for Academic Freedom at the University of California. Da Capo, 1971.
Strauss, Lewis. Men and Decisions. Doubleday, 1962.
Strickland, Donald. Scientists in Politics: The Atomic Scientists Movement, 1945–46. Purdue University Press, 1968.
Strong, Tracy, and Helene Keyssar. Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong. Random House, 1983.
Sudoplatov, Pavel, et al. Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness—a Soviet Spymaster. Little, Brown, 1994.
Tanenhaus, Sam. Whittaker Chambers. Random House, 1997.
Taubman, William, Sergei Khrushchev, and Abbott Gleason, eds. Nikita Khrushchev. Yale University Press, 2000.
Teller, Edward. Better a Shield than a Sword: Perspectives on Defense and Technology. Free Press, 1987.
———. Energy from Heaven and Earth. Freeman, 1979.
Teller, Edward, and Allen Brown. The Legacy of Hiroshima. Doubleday, 1962.
Teller, Edward, and Albert Latter. Our Nuclear Future: Facts, Dangers, and Opportunities. Criterion Books, 1958.
Teller, Edward, with Judith Shoolery. Memoirs: A Twentieth-Century Journey in Science and Politics. Perseus Press, 2001.
Truslow, Edith, and Ralph Carlisle Smith. Project Y: The Los Alamos Story. Vol. 2, Beyond Trinity. Tomash, 1983.
Ulam, S. M. Adventures of a Mathematician. University of California Press, 1991.
U.S. Air Force Historical Division. A History of the Air Force Atomic Energy Program, 1943–1953. Vol. 4, The Development of Weapons. U.S. Air Force History Office, n.d.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer. MIT Press, 1971.
U.S. Congress. House Un-American Activities Committee. Hearings Regarding Clarence Hiskey Including Testimony of Paul Crouch. 81st Congress, 2nd Sess., May 24, 1949.
———. House Un-American Activities Committee. Hearings Regarding Communist Infiltration of Radiation Laboratory and Atomic Bomb Project at the University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Vols. 1–3. 81st Congress, 2nd sess., April–June 1949.
———. House Un-American Activities Committee. Hearings Regarding Steve Nelson. 81st Congress, 2nd sess., June 8, 1949.
———. House Un-American Activities Committee. Hearings Regarding the Communist Infiltration of the Motion Picture Industry. 80th Congress, 1st sess., October 1947.
———. House Un-American Activities Committee. Report on Atomic Espionage (Nelson-Weinberg and Hiskey-Adams Cases). 81st Congress, 2nd session, Sept. 29, 1949.
———. House Un-American Activities Committee. Report on Soviet Espionage Activities in Connection with the Atom Bomb. 80th Congress, 2nd session, Sept. 28, 1948.
———. House Un-American Activities Committee. The Shameful Years: Thirty Years of Soviet Espionage in the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1952.
———. House Un-American Activities Committee. Testimony of James Sterling Murray and Edward Tiers Manning. 81st Congress, 1st sess., Aug. 14 and Oct. 5, 1949.
———. Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 81st Congress, 1st sess., June 6, 1949. Investigation into the United States Atomic Energy Project. Pts. 4, 7, and 23. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949.
———. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 83rd Congress, 1st sess., October–December 1953. Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1953.
———. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. Electronic Surveillance Within the United States for Foreign Intelligence Purposes. 94th Congress, 2nd sess., June–August 1976.
U.S. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States. Vol. 1, 1949–1950. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976–77.
———. Foreign Relations of the United States. Vol. 2, pt. 2, 1952–1954. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984.
———. Foreign Relations of the United States. Vol. 20, 1955–1957. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990.
———. Foreign Relations of the United States. Vol. 3, 1958–1960. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996.
Voss, Earl. Nuclear Ambush: The Test-Ban Trap. Regnery, 1963.
Weart, Spencer, and Gertrude W. Szilard, eds. Leo Szilard: His Version of the Facts. Vol. 2. MIT Press, 1978.
Weinstein, Allen. Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case. Random House, 1997.
Weinstein, Allen, and Alexander Vassiliev. The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America—the Stalin Era. Random House, 1999.
Weisgall, Jonathan. Operation Crossroads: The Atomic Tests at Bikini Atoll. Naval Institute Press, 1994.
West, Nigel. Venona: The Greatest Secret of the Cold War. HarperCollins, 1999.
West, Nigel, and Oleg Tsarev. The Crown Jewels: The British Secrets at the Heart of the KGB Archives. HarperCollins, 1998.
Wheeler, John A., and Kenneth Ford. Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics. Norton, 1998.
Williams, Robert. Klaus Fuchs: Atom Spy. Harvard University Press, 1987.
Williams, Robert, and Philip Cantelon, eds. The American Atom: A Documentary History of Nuclear Policies from the Discovery of Fission to the Present, 1939–1984. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984.
Wyden, Peter. Day One: Before Hiroshima and After. Simon and Schuster, 1984.
York, Herbert. The Advisors: Oppenheimer, Teller, and the Superbomb. Freeman, 1976.
———. Making Weapons, Talking Peace: A Physicist’s Odyssey from Hiroshima to Geneva. Basic Books, 1987.
———. “The Origins of the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory.” Unpublished manuscript, 1975.
Zachary, G. Pascal. Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century. Free Press, 1997.
&
nbsp; Zaloga, Steven. The Kremlin’s Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia’s Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945–2000. Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001.
Ziegler, Charles, and David Jacobson. “Intelligence Assessments of Soviet Atomic Capability, 1945–1949: Myths, Monopolies, and Maskirovka.” Intelligence and National Security 12, no. 4 (1997).
———. Spying Without Spies: Origins of America’s Secret Nuclear Surveillance System. Praeger, 1995.
———. “Waiting for Joe-1: Decisions Leading to the Detection of Russia’s First Atomic Bomb Test.” Social Studies of Science 18 (1988).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THERE IS A decade’s worth of gratitude behind the researching and writing of this book. First to acknowledge is the contribution of a Smithsonian colleague, Jim David, who was an early and sustained collaborator on the project. Jim possesses a unique skill as a researcher—combining the mind of a lawyer with the tenacity of a bulldog.
My thanks also go to all who agreed to be interviewed for the book, as well as those who read portions or all of the manuscript—particularly Lyall Johnson, Joe Albright, Eldred Nelson, Stan Norris, Joe Volpe, Richard Rhodes, Herb York, Tom Powers, Robert Seidel, and Spencer Weart. Though they caught errors of omission and commission, those that remain are my own.
Archivist Bill Roberts was of great help at the Bancroft; Martha Demarre at DOE’s archive in Las Vegas is a national treasure; Marcia Daniel was a “FOIA angel” at the FBI and deserves all the awards the bureau can possibly give her. Phil Schiedermayer was helpful in opening doors to other former FBI agents; Lou Benson of the National Security Agency helped in the interpretation of Venona; Jennifer Decapua hunted down Joint Committee records. Steve Wofford, Jim Carothers, and Beverly Bull, at Livermore, were of more assistance than I was able to appreciate at the time; as was Roger Meade at Los Alamos.
Joe Albright and Marcia Kunstel shared with the author documents that they brought out of the former Soviet Union and that are reprinted, in part, in the text. Bart Bernstein, John Haynes, Harvey Klehr, Chuck Hansen, Stan Norris, Kai Bird, and Priscilla McMillan were likewise generous in sharing the insights and documents that they discovered in their own, related research. Peter and Judy Oppenheimer were kind enough to provide photographs and papers from their respective fathers, Robert and Frank. Jack Crawford made available the private papers of AEC Commissioner Thomas Murray. Karen Chevalier not only gave the author permission to quote from her father’s papers in Valreas, France, but also hosted my wife and me during a marvelous week-and-a-half stay in Provence. Many thanks to Marilyn de Silva for a copy of her husband’s uncompleted manscript on Oppenheimer.
Smithsonian secretary Bob Adams and several directors of the National Air and Space Museum—Martin Harwit, Bob Hoffman, Donald Engen, and Jack Dailey—deserve thanks for allowing me the time to complete the book. The faculty of the history and politics departments at my undergraduate alma mater, the University of California, Santa Cruz, provided fellowship and a place to work during a sabbatical in 1996–97. My thanks to the MacArthur Foundation for a research and writing grant in 1992.
Dan Guttman and the staff of the President’s Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, my colleagues during 1994–95, not only tolerated my peculiar interest in Lawrence but are responsible for a most intellectually exciting time.
To all those unnamed friends who provided logistical and emotional support over the past decade, an inscribed copy of the book is promised. You have my gratitude now.
Molly Lawrence, who played an early and important part in my research, got to welcome in the new century, as she had hoped. With luck, her other wish will also come to pass.
Finally, I’d like to acknowledge an intellectual debt to a late friend, colleague, and inspiration to all those who have labored in this particular vineyard—Stanley Goldberg. Stan, we still miss you every day.
INDEX
The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages in your eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.
Abelson, Philip
Abraham Lincoln Brigade
Acheson, Dean
and second lab
and the Super
Acheson-Lilienthal plan
Addis, Thomas
Adler, Felix
AFOAT-1
air force
nuclear bomber
Oppenheimer blacklisted with
Science Advisory Board
and superbomb
Alarm Clock
Allardice, Corbin
Alpha Calutron
Alpha racetracks
Alpha I
Alpha II
Alpha III
Alvarez, Luis (“Luie”)
and atomic bomb test
and bomb project
critic of Lawrence
East Coast Rad Lab
and hydrogen bomb
Linac
at Los Alamos
and MTA
and Oppenheimer hearing
postwar research
and radiological warfare
statement to FBI about Oppenheimer
and the Super
war work
witness to attack on Hiroshima
American Federation of Teachers
Local
American Physical Society
Americans
espionage proceedings against
passing information to Soviets
recruited by Soviets
Amtorg
Anderson, Clinton
Apresyan, Stepan (May)
Armed Forces Special Weapons Project
arms race
see also nuclear arms race
army
contracts
counterintelligence
funding Berkeley Rad Lab
Military Intelligence Division
Military Intelligence Division, Counter-Intelligence Corps (CIC)
and new lab
and Oppenheimer’s security clearance
and postwar research
security
surveillance
taking over bomb project
turf war with FBI
and University of California
wiretaps and bugs
see also G-2 (military intelligence)
Army Air Corps/Army Air Force (AAF)
see also air force
Arneson, Gordon
Association of Los Alamos Scientists (ALAS)
Atlas (missile)
atom
atomic arsenal (U.S.)
atomic bomb
alternative concepts for
attack on Hiroshima
concern over moral implications of
consideration of use of
control of
doubts/regrets about
feasibility of
international control of
measuring explosive force of
men and equipment sent to Pacific to drop
Oppenheimer and
possibility of failure of
postwar policy regarding
postwar production of
postwar research
proposed demonstration of
radiation from
roadblocks on way to
reaching completion
shock wave from
small
Soviet Union
Soviets spying on
stockpile of
in thermonuclear explosion
threat to humanity posed by
see also bomb project; tests/testing
atomic chain reaction
Atomic Development Authority (ADA) (proposed)
atomic disintegration
atomic energy
civilian control of
international control of
international implications of
military applications of<
br />
peacetime applications of
practical application of
proposal to share information about
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
Atoms for Peace
and bomb tests
Brookhaven laboratory
and case against Oppenheimer
classification system
contracts for nuclear power plants
contracts with University of California
and disarmament
Division of Military Application
Division of Security
and FBI
guidelines regarding security risks
and MTA
and nuclear tests
Oppenheimer hearings
Personnel Security Boards (PSB)
personnel security questionnaires
and Rad Lab
radiological warfare study
and second lab
and spy scandal
Strauss chairman of
subcontracts
supposed malfeasance
and the Super
and test ban
verdict on Oppenheimer
atomic nucleus
atomic pile
fission products from
review of status
“Atomic Program Chronology”
atomic research
postwar
“Atomic Summit”
atomic warfare, future of
Atoms for Peace program
autocatalytic weapons
Bacher, Robert
on AEC
and Soviet bomb
and the Super
test-ban talks
witness at Oppenheimer hearing
ballistic missiles
Baruch, Bernard
Bates, Charles
Belmont, Alan
Benicia Laboratory
Bentley, Elizabeth
Beria, Lavrentii
Berkeley
accelerators at
army contract(s)
and bomb project
concern over moral implications of bomb
contribution to war effort
dominant power in high-energy physics
effect of Second World War on
Faculty Club
espionage at
Lawrence at
LeConte Hall
loyalty oath controversy at
New Classroom Building
Oppenheimer returned to
physicists at
physics department
postwar research
scientists and Communist Party
security investigations at
