England became ruled by the Normans, who built a network of castles across the country from which to rule. They were not popular; after all, they spoke French, followed Frankish and Viking customs, and set aside huge tracts of useful land for hunting. On the mainland, however, their renowned fighting skills endeared them to any ruler looking for hired help. In one instance they were engaged by the Pope to free Sicily and Southern Italy from Islamic domination and ended up ruling Sicily as a Norman kingdom for several generations.
IV
The Late Middle Ages
AD 1000 - 1450
Challenges to the Caliphate
The golden age of the Abbasid Caliphate did not last long. Its extravagant court and the embracing of Sunni Islam caused many rifts; the Abbasids had, after all, come to power with the support of many Shiite Muslims. This alienated many of whom should have been loyal followers and led to the emergence of several regional centres of Islamic power that ended up challenging the central authority of the Caliphate.
The Umayyad prince who had fled to Spain after the massacre of his family represented only one disenchanted party. Many Shiites, believing that the Abbasids were usurpers, left for northern Africa where they established rival kingdoms. The most renowned of these was that of the Fatimids, who claimed descent from Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima. Proclaiming a rival caliphate in AD 910, they conquered Egypt in AD 969 and founded the city of Cairo as their capital, from which they ruled most of northern Africa.
By the 11th century the Fatimids were already more powerful than the Abbasids in Baghdad, but their gradual encroachment on Palestine and Syria brought them into direct conflict with both the Seljuk Turks and the invading European crusaders, and this ultimately led to their downfall.
The Seljuk Turks had migrated to Persia from the Central Asian Steppe in the 11th century and proceeded to settle in Abbasid lands and convert to Sunni Islam. Sensing the weaknesses of the Abbasids, they gained control of Baghdad in 1055 and within 20 years had captured most of Asia Minor from the Byzantines, naming it the Independent Sultanate of Rum,34 after the Arabic word for Rome. This became the first permanent settlement of Turks in Asia Minor and is generally understood to be the beginning of Islam in Turkey – the land of the Turks.35
Europe’s Religious Schism (AD 1054)
While the Seljuks were conquering Asia Minor, Europe was suffering from its own religious fracture. For much of the early Middle Ages there had been reduced contact between the Papacy in Rome and the Patriarchy in Constantinople, both of which were administered separately. A number of minor differences, such as the seemingly unimportant discord over whether priests should have beards, had arisen over the years and alienated the churches somewhat, but two issues drove a more formidable wedge between them. One was the supremacy of the Pope in Rome over all other bishops of the Catholic Church, which was challenged by the Orthodox Church in the East; the other related to the importance and position of the Holy Spirit within the Christian Trinity of God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit.
The growing misunderstanding and alienation between the two groups was intensified by differences of culture and language. Things came to a head in 1054 when the Pope in Rome and the Patriarch in Constantinople ex-communicated each other. Ever since then the churches have remained divided into the Roman Catholic Church in the west and the Orthodox Church in the east. Although efforts at reconciliation were made at various times – specifically during the advances of the Turks in the 14th and 15th centuries – they were unsuccessful.
In the West the Church had its own problems; it soon became apparent to the new kings of Europe that controlling the Church would give them access to its riches. What’s more, in a superstitious world, the Church rivalled temporal rulers, so it became a power base that the kings of Western Europe wished to control. When the emperors of the newly founded and predominantly German Roman Empire started making senior appointments in the Church, the Church’s response was to make it clear that only the office of the Pope had the power to appoint bishops and abbots.
As punishment for daring to challenge him, the Pope then ex-communicated the German emperor, Henry IV. There followed a bizarre period in history when Henry elected another Pope and Henry’s enemies elected another emperor. In the process Henry IV stormed Rome and the Pope called for help from the Normans, who sacked Rome themselves! The emperor and the Pope were not reconciled until 1122, when it was finally agreed that while the emperor could not appoint bishops, he could nevertheless retain the right to grant them land. The whole episode came to be known as the ‘Investiture Controversy’.
The Crusades (AD 1096–1291)
The encroachment of the Seljuk Turks from the east and the subsequent threat, not only to pilgrim access to the Holy places but also to Christendom itself, became an increasing concern in Europe in the mid-11th century. Indeed, the emperors in Constantinople had implored the Pope on numerous occasions to assist them in their fight against the heathens from the east. The Church in Rome now saw an opportunity not only to demonstrate its power, which had become increasingly challenged, but also to heal the rift between Roman and Orthodox Christianity.
And so, in 1095, Pope Urban II called for a ‘crusade’ to liberate Jerusalem from the infidels, even promising the forgiveness of sins in an attempt to encourage people to take part. Tens of thousands of people, ranging from commoners worried about their salvation to rich Europeans hungry for adventure, wealth and land (and also worried about their salvation) took up arms and headed east.
A large army of peasants was the first to set off, plundering central Europe and butchering thousands of Jews on the way, an act that brought great shame upon them. Only a few made it to Nicaea where they were slaughtered by the Turks. During the same year, however, more organised groups led by prominent nobles and professional soldiers arrived at Constantinople and sacked the Seljuk cities of Nicaea and Antioch on their way to Jerusalem.
When the Fatimids of Egypt heard of the fall of Antioch they invaded Palestine and captured Bethlehem. Fortunately for the crusaders, the Seljuks and the Fatimids were sworn enemies, which meant they spent more time fighting each other than preparing for the defence of Jerusalem. And so it came to be that, in 1099, not long after the crusaders had entered Bethlehem, Jerusalem fell to the invading army of French and Norman knights. Most of the population, regardless of religion, was butchered without mercy.
Over the following years the crusaders founded four crusader kingdoms in the heart of ‘Dar al-Islam’ and built several huge forts to protect themselves, some of which still stand today. These kingdoms came to be known collectively as ‘Outremer’, from the French word for ‘overseas’, as most of the knights who had taken part in the first crusade were French or Norman.
Many crusaders returned home after having fulfilled their vows, leaving the crusader kingdoms relatively undefended. This was partially solved by the foundation of the Knights Templar, a military order established to protect the crusader kingdoms and any pilgrims wishing to visit Jerusalem now that it was back in Christian hands. Despite their best efforts, however, they were unable to protect one of the crusader kingdoms (Edessa), which was taken by the Turks in 1144. This event launched a disastrous crusade to take it back, this time led by King Louis VII of France and King Conrad III of Germany.
Things took a further turn for the worse for the crusaders towards the end of the 12th century when the Muslim world of Egypt, Syria and much of northern Africa became united under the leadership of the Sunni Muslim, Yusuf ibn Ayyub, who would become known as Salah al-Din (Saladin), or Rectifier of the Faith. Saladin founded his own dynasty, that of the Ayyubids.36 Setting his sights on freeing the Holy Land from crusader rule, Saladin and his armies swept through the crusader kingdoms, taking city after city until Jerusalem itself finally fell back into Muslim hands in 1187. During his siege of Jerusalem, Saladin gained fame for sparing the inhabitants, in sharp contrast to the way the Christians had acted 90 or so years previously.
With Europe in shock, Pope Gregory VIII quickly called for a third crusade – a call that was greeted with enthusiasm by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, King Richard I of England37 and King Philip II of France. This crusade was marred by disagreement and bad luck; Frederick Barbarossa drowned in a river and most of his army returned home after his death; Philip II returned home with his troops after a disagreement, and Richard I made it to the walls of Jerusalem only to be advised by the Knights Templar that even if he succeeded in capturing the city, he would not have the manpower to hold on to it.
These events inspired Richard to return to England to deal with a threat from his brother, John, in whose hands he had left the throne while on crusade.38 But before Richard left the Holy Land, he signed a peace treaty with Saladin in which the crusader kingdoms were allowed to hold onto much of their land. Christian pilgrims would also be granted access to Jerusalem, but the city itself would remain in Muslim control.
On yet another crusade to free Jerusalem in 1203-4, the crusaders brought shame on themselves once again. On their way to Jerusalem they were offered money by the son of the deposed Byzantine emperor to help him re-take his throne in Constantinople. When he reneged on his payment, the furious crusaders went on a rampage through Constantinople, ransacking it and butchering its population, an act that dashed any hope of reconciliation between the Roman and Orthodox Churches.
There were further crusades over the next hundred years, one of which resulted in the occupation of Jerusalem for a period of 15 years, but patience with the crusader armies eventually ran out. In 1261 the Byzantine Emperor drove the crusaders from Constantinople. By this time, however, the Byzantine Empire was only a fraction of its original size, occupying only parts of Greece and the north-west part of present-day Turkey. The original crusaders lingered on in Syria and Palestine in the forts they had built to protect themselves, only for their last fortress to fall to an invading Mamluk army in 1291.
The Mamluks: Kingdom of Slaves (AD 1250–1517)
Mamluks, from the Arabic ‘Mamluk’ meaning 'enslaved', first appeared under the Abbasid Caliphate. Unsure as to the loyalty of those surrounding them and fearful of the bordering Byzantine Empire in a period when their power was in decline, the Abbasids had already in the 9th century created an army loyal only to themselves. They achieved this by taking the sons of enslaved non-Muslim families, bringing them up as Sunni warriors, and giving them positions of responsibility in the service of the caliphate. The power of these slaves grew to such an extent that they ended up playing a major role in the medieval Islamic world, overthrowing the remains of Saladin’s Ayubbid dynasty in 1250,39 and quickly extending their power over Palestine and Syria.40
The crusaders may have been ejected in the end but the experience had reaped benefits for the West. ‘Although they would ultimately end in failure, the Crusades nonetheless paid significant dividends by bringing the Latin world face-to-face with the scientific and technological prowess of the Arab East.’41 One of the skills the crusaders brought home with them was that of stone carving, a skill that contributed greatly to the building of magnificent churches throughout Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries. Another major effect of the Crusades was economic: they opened the old Middle East and Asia to the West, stimulating demand for Asian luxuries and making great trade centres of Venice and Genoa. This was important in that it laid the foundations for the economic prosperity that would help drive the Renaissance in Europe.
While the Holy Land was in turmoil, Europe had enjoyed a period of peace. Agricultural advances meant that productivity was improved which meant that fewer farmers were needed to feed society. More people moved to towns and trade grew significantly as a result. However, this was all to be interrupted in the 13th century when Europe and the Middle East were invaded by new hoards of bloodthirsty warriors from the east: the Mongols.
The Mongols and Genghis Khan (13th – 15th centuries)
An obscure pastoral and tribal people who lived in what is now Outer Mongolia – the Mongols had been gradually united towards the end of the 12th century. One of their leaders, Timuchin, so impressed them with his military abilities that in 1206, at the age of 42, they named him ‘Universal Ruler’ or Genghis Khan.
Under his leadership, the Mongols exploded out of the Steppe and terrorised much of Asia. Reasons for their westerly march are unclear; it may have occurred due to changes in the climate that forced them to seek out new pastures for their animals, or it could have been as simple as having more time and energy to focus on adventures other than internecine warfare now that they were unified. After all, ‘Genghis Khan succeeded in doing for the Mongols what Muhammad had done for the Arabs, he had united them.’42
Their success is perhaps slightly easier to understand. Up against them was a divided China, no single leader to rally the armies of central Asia, a declining Abbasid Caliphate and a series of fragmented city-states that would eventually become Russia. In essence, the world was open for the taking. With the help of their lightning mobility, their spectacular horsemanship, and the discipline of their military machine, the Mongols were hugely successful. By the time of Kublai Khan, half a century or so later, they had managed to bring almost the entire Asian landmass under their control.
Genghis Khan died in 1227 around the age of 65. Under the rule of his descendants, the Mongols occupied all of northern China and overran much of Kievan Rus, destroying most of the major cities in the process. They then overcame the Seljuk Turks43 before heading westwards into Poland and Hungary.
As the Mongols were crossing the Danube and approaching Vienna in December 1241, they quite mysteriously retreated. To the Europeans this was a miracle, but the Mongol withdrawal did not come about as a result of divine intervention. Rather they retreated in response to the death of Genghis Khan’s son, Ogedei, who had taken over from Genghis Khan upon his death. It was required of Mongol nobles that they return home in the case of the death of their ruler to confirm their leader’s successor. Following a short reign by one of Ogedei’s sons in 1251, the position of Great Khan went to Mongke, another of Genghis Khan’s grandsons. Mongke continued the invasion of China while simultaneously sending his brother, Hulegu, westwards to bring the Abbasid Caliphate into submission.
In 1258, Hulegu rode into Baghdad, until then dominated by the Seljuk Turks, and unleashed his hordes upon the city. According to some estimates, up to 800,000 Muslims were massacred, including the last reigning Abbasid caliph – albeit one of vastly reduced power – who was rolled up in a carpet and trampled to death by horses. In an orgy of destruction, all the intellectual and literary treasures accumulated by the Muslims throughout the centuries were burnt or thrown into the river Tigris. The time of Iraq as a centre of power and culture was finally over and Cairo would now become the centre of the Islamic world until Christian Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453.
Miraculously, the West was once again saved from assured destruction, this time by the death of the Great Khan Mongke, who died invading a Chinese province in 1259. Hulegu was forced to retreat home to take part in the leadership struggle and what remained of his forces in the west was decisively beaten by the Mamluks.
Kublai Khan (AD 1215–1294)
The Mongol leader chosen to succeed Mongke was Kublai Khan. While in theory he ruled the largest land empire in history, by this time the Mongolian Empire had been bequeathed to Genghis’ four sons in the form of four territories. These had become de facto independent empires or ‘khanates’, each ruled by a separate khan and each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives.
The greatest khanate – that of Mongolia, Korea, Tibet and parts of China – was ruled by Kublai, who completed the subjugation of China, effectively ending the ruling Sung Dynasty there. The second khanate, the Chagatai Khanate, comprised much of Central Asia. The third khanate in south-west Asia, known as the Il-Khanate, and created by Hulegu, ruled over Persia and the Middle East.44 The fourth and longest lasting khanate was the Kip
chak Khanate, or ‘Golden Horde’, which eventually included most of Russia, Poland and Hungary.
Kublai Khan relocated the imperial capital of the Mongolian Empire from Karakorum, in Mongolia, to Beijing, in northern China. Having conquered all of southern China, Kublai Khan added Emperor of China to his long list of titles, even adopting a Chinese dynastic name, the Yuan, which became the ruling dynasty in China for about a hundred years.
Wishing to extend his lands further, in 1274 and 1281, Kublai Khan launched two major assaults on Japan, both of which were hindered by terrible storms. The Japanese believed the winds had been sent by the gods to protect them and called them the ‘divine wind’, or ‘kamikaze’.
Outside China, the other khanates slowly started to pay less attention to the demands of the Great Khan and began to govern themselves, partially because they felt the Great Khanate in the east had forsaken its Mongolian roots and become too Chinese. The resulting loss of unity and the struggles for succession following the death of Great Khan Mongke in around 1260 signalled the end of a unified Mongol empire and Kublai Khan ended up being the last person to hold the title of Great Khan of the Mongols.
The Ascent of Moscow
In Russia, the Mongols of the Golden Horde ruled Kievan Rus through local princes who paid tribute to them. By assisting the Mongols in collecting these tributes, the insignificant trading outpost of Moscow began to flourish around the turn of the 14th century and became a relatively safe place to live. As a result it attracted more wealth and people. As a sign of the city's importance, the Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church was transferred from the town of Vladimir to Moscow, making it the spiritual capital of Russia.
A Short History of the World Page 6
