Labor party, 46
management of the frontier, 105–12
martial races concept, 59–60
Middle East Command and, 177–78
Middle East Defense Organization and, 179
paramountcy and, 293n9
Partition and, 40–41, 42, 58
the Punjab and, 106–7
recruitment and, 59
security management by, 54
Sindh province, Pakistan, and, 106–7
strategic appraisal of threats, 104–5
strategic depth and, 105, 111
strategic environment and, 27
strategic geography and, 297–98n2
strategic view of South Asia, 297–98n2
terrorist attacks on, 248, 252
transfer of power by, 140
Great Game, 107, 158, 171
guerrilla warfare, 26, 227–28, 235–36
in 1965 war, 93
day-after, 228–30
defense literatures and, 235–36, 243
deterrence and, 238
India and, 147–48
intelligence agencies and, 242–43
in Kashmir, 14, 160
Kashmir and, 235–36
limitations of, 237
national conditions and, 227–28
nuclear weapons and, 228–30
political situation and, 227–28
terrain and, 227–28
US and, 228–30
“Guerrilla Warfare” (East), 227–28
Gul, Hamid, 266
Gurdaspur district, Pakistan, 52–53
Gurkhas, 55, 58, 60, 61
Haig, Alexander, 207
Hamoodur Rehman Commission, 164–65
Haq, Zia ul, 10, 20, 23
Haqqani, Jalaluddin, 133
Haqqani Network, 13, 79
Harkat-ul-Ansar/Harkat-ul-Mujahideen (HuA/HuM), 243
Hazratbal shrine, Srinagar, 92–93
Hazratbal crisis of 1963, 159
Headley, David, 252
Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin, 101, 120, 121, 122, 125–26, 127, 128
Hindus, 10, 40–41, 47, 52–54, 58, 60, 68, 154, 159–61, 237, 257, 278
in the 1965 war, 100
Bengalis as, 94–95
Brahmins, 74–75
in East Pakistan, 143, 165
language and, 143–44
two-nation theory and, 43–44
Hindutva, 230
Hizb-e-Islami-Afghanistan, 122
Hizb-e-Watan, Party of the Homeland, 127
Hizb-i-Islami, 124, 126, 127
Hizbul Mujahideen, 244, 250, 260
Holbrooke, Richard, 219
Hussain, Mamnoon, 265
Hussain, Safdar Lt. Gen., 246
Hussein, Saddam, 19
Hyderabad (Princely State of), 46, 47–48
Hyderabad (Sindh Pakistan), 33
ideology, 4–5, 8, 10, 17, 21–22, 26, 45, 66–102, 89, 282
defense literatures and, 278–79
education and, 95–98
elite, 22
ethnicity and, 271–74, 272, 273–74
Islamic militants and, 260
mujahideen and, 237
Pakistan Army and, 26, 40, 268, 274, 278–79, 280
Pakistani identity and, 67–71
Zia ul Haq and, 69
Ikramullah, Mohammad, 178
“Iman, Taqwa, Jihad-fi-sibillilah” motto of Pakistan army, 81
India, 3, 10, 12, 15, 40, 44, 64, 133–34, 147, 160, 177, 189, 191, 278, 282. See also Indo-Pakistani conflicts
1965 war, 14–15
1971 war, 15
1974 nuclear test, 138, 156, 189–90, 193, 202, 205, 218–19, 238
1998 nuclear tests, 209, 217
2001-2002 standoff, 215, 239, 241
Afghanistan and, 2, 112–13, 117–18, 133, 134–35, 158–59, 171, 279
as aggressor, 91–95, 136–37, 154, 160, 223, 279–80, 301n9
Baloch nationalists and, 136
Bangladesh and, 149–50, 157
border with, 1
China and, 188, 242 (see also Sino-Indian War)
colonial, 9
decolonization and, 41, 46
in defense literature, 11, 91–95, 136–37, 154, 160, 279–80, 301n9
defense modernization in, 17
deterrence of, 243
Durand Line and, 298n7
East Pakistan and, 148–49
economy of, 17, 58, 267–68
ethnic separatist movements in, 148–49
ethno-nationalist insurgencies in, 136
EU and, 2
as existential threat, 165–72, 214, 269, 281
guerrilla warfare and, 147–48
as hegemon, 74–75, 136, 154–59, 173
Hinduism and, 7, 8, 21, 57, 154, 278–79
independence movement in, 293n6
in the international community, 17
Iran and, 2, 17
Islamic groups in, 66, 227
Israel and, 2, 17, 157–58
Kashmir and, 14, 88, 92, 139–41, 228, 233, 235
Kashmiri insurgents in, 259
as made up of nonbelievers, 90–91
map of, 286
media and, 172
militant proxies in, 16–17
military exercises by, 137
military exercises with China, 17
as multiethnic, 7
Muslims in, 42–43, 58, 193
negative depiction of, 159–61
nonaligned position of, 179, 182
nuclear policy of, 229
nuclear weapons and, 136, 138, 197, 202–27, 211, 229
opposition to, 90–91
Pakhtun nationalists and, 136
Pakistan Army and, 1–9, 25–26, 80, 81, 115–19, 129, 131, 154–73
as paper tiger, 161–65
Peaceful Nuclear Explosion of 1974, 202, 205
the Princely States and, 50
proxy fighters in, 226
the Punjab and, 53–54
Qatar and, 2
reciprocal tests in 1998, 250
refusal to share assets of the Raj, 279
regional ascendancy and, 279
revisionism and, 14
rise of, 2, 7, 13, 27
Russia and, 242, 279
Saudi Arabia and, 2
Self-Government Act, 295n19
Sikh insurgency in, 226
Sindhi nationalists and, 136
Soviet Union and, 115–16, 123, 149, 186
strategic partnerships of, 2
terrorism and, 136–37, 190, 239, 250, 252, 275
UNSC and, 2, 17
US and, 2, 16, 17, 136, 139, 157–58, 171, 185, 187–88, 189, 224–25, 233, 242–43
Indian Army, 8, 39, 52, 54–63, 65, 90, 100, 147–48, 301n4
Indian Army (British), 59–63
Indian (National) Congress party, 42, 44–47, 48, 54, 292n2, 293n6, 293n7
Indian Independence Act of 1947, 46, 47, 51
Indian militant groups, 251–52
Indian Military Academy, 56, 59
Indian National Army (INA), 49, 294n11
Indian Parliament, terrorist strikes on, 16, 17, 97, 138–39, 239, 250, 252
Indian Rebellion of 1857 (also known as Indian Mutiny of 1857). 57–58, 60, 105–7, 230
Indo-China War, 233,
Indo-Pakistani conflicts, 12, 93–94, 136–43, 205, 222, 291n10, 301n4. See also specific wars;
1947–1948 war over Kashmir, 14, 50–51, 65, 88, 92, 139–41, 228, 235
1965 war, 15, 88, 90, 92–93, 100, 116, 122, 141–43, 161, 189, 204, 232–33, 299–300n17
1971 war, 15, 18, 39, 69, 88, 90, 94, 116, 143–50, 157, 160–61, 172–73, 182, 202, 218, 226, 230–31, 238, 279
1984–1985 Punjab crisis, 221
1986–1987 Brasstacks Crisis, 137, 138, 221, 223
of 1990, 221
1999 Kargil War, 15–16, 23, 88, 90, 150–53, 189, 219, 221, 223, 241, 250–51
2001-2002 standoff, 215
conflict rate by nu
clear period, 223–24
cross-tabulation of conflict months by nuclear status, 223–24
with India, 102
misrepresentation of, 36
narratives of, 91–95
nuclearization of, 229
Pakistani precipitation of, 156–57
results of, 172–73
Twin Peaks Crisis of 2001–2002, 137, 138–39, 215, 219, 220, 221, 223, 239, 241
Indo-US civilian nuclear deal, 216
Indus River, 106, 107, 111, 130, 186, 289n4, 298n7
Indus Water Treaty of 1960, 289n4
insurgent movements, 93, 95, 136. See also specific movements
intelligence agencies, 18, 36, 126, 129, 198, 259, 305n12. See also Inter Service Intelligence (ISI)
guerrilla warfare and, 242–43
Indian, 211
Israeli, 211
media and, 172
military intelligence, 66
Pakistan Army and, 251–53
US, 211, 212 (see also US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA))
Intelligence Bureau, 66
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 205, 290n5
international community, Pakistan and, 18, 174, 261, 275–76
International Monetary Fund, 3
International Republican Institute (IRI), 88
Inter Service Intelligence (Directorate) (ISI), 66, 79, 81, 101, 122, 125, 128–29, 152, 167, 169, 190, 198, 213, 217, 251–52, 263, 282
Inter Services Public Relations (ISPR), 34, 35, 36–37, 118, 169–70, 209, 305n12
Iqbal, Allama, 42. See also Iqbal, Muhammad
Iqbal, Muhammad, 42–43
Iran, 19, 104–5, 116, 117, 123–24, 129, 171
askari tanzeems (militant groups) and, 244
Baghdad Pact and, 179
India and, 2
nuclear weapons and, 210
partnership with India, 17
Sunni Muslims and, 244
Iranian Revolution, 70, 170
Iran–Iraq War, 19, 70
Iraq, 19, 114, 171, 179, 217, 246
irregular warfare, 236–37, 250–51, 259. See also guerrilla warfare
Islam, 5, 8, 10, 26, 40, 42–43, 85, 89
Barelvi school, 254
defense of, 65
influence in Pakistan Army, 10
instrumentalization of, 65, 81, 85–86, 102
interpretative traditions of, 71
jihad and, 237
nationalism and, 87–88
nuclear weapons and, 206
political, 7
roles of, 10
strategic culture and, 66–102
Sunni Islam, 237
as unifying ideology, 69
Islamabad Policy Research Institute (IPRI), 119
Islamic law. See sharia
Islamic military history, 97–100, 101
Islamic Revolutionary Movement of Afghanistan (Hezb-e-Harakat-e-Inqelab-e-Islami Afghanistan), 125
Islamic Society of Afghanistan (Jamiat-i-Islami-i-Afghanistan), 126
Islamic Unity party (Ittihad-i Islami), 126
Islamic warriors, tradition of, 97–100
Islamism, 10, 71, 80–81, 81–85, 102, 271, 290n7
Islamist insurgency, 16, 126, 194, 226. See also Islamist militant groups
Islamist militant groups, 10–13, 51, 79, 90, 102, 268, 278, 296n3, 300n18, 304n4, 304n10, 305n12. See also specific groups
in 1965 war, 93
Afghan, 66, 121–22, 123, 124, 125, 259
as assets, 243–51
biographies of, 253
in China, 198
exploitation of socioeconomic grievances, 247
ideology and, 66–67, 70–71, 81–82, 85, 102–3, 237
India and, 66, 138–39, 152–53, 160, 168–69, 170
instrumentalization of, 226
Kashmiri, 151–52
Musharraf and, 78–79
nuclear doctrine and, 242–43
nuclear weapons and, 226–60, 296n3
Pakistan Army and, 103, 118–20, 131, 134, 190, 194, 251–53
Pakistan’s control over, 251–52
Pakistan’s military struggle against, 132
Pakistan’s support for, 251–53
political, 226
as proxies, 1, 26, 250
public opinion and, 248–49
Punjabi, 295n1
relationships among, 249–50, 249
revisionism and, 2, 3–4, 7, 16–17
in Sindh province, Pakistan, 137
social services provided by, 258–59
Sunni, 101, 125–26, 246
training of, 121–22, 253–54
US and, 125, 251, 300n18
Islamist political parties, 77, 119–20, 170. See also specific parties
Islamization, 45, 66–102, 124, 170, 290n7, 295n1
in the 1973 constitution, 70
Army’s methods of, 81–85
education and, 82
as justification for martial law, 70
recruitment and, 84–85
Zia ul Haq and, 70–71, 84–85, 102
Ismaili Shia, 48
Ispahani, M. A. H., 177
Israel, 137
1982 war in Lebanon, 20
India and, 2, 17, 157–58
nuclear weapons and, 211, 217
US and, 157–58
Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, 47
Jacob, J. F. R., 148
Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM), 17, 97, 138–39, 168, 243, 248, 250, 252, 255, 296n3
Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), 71, 81–82, 101, 119, 122, 124, 125–26, 250, 266
Jamaat-ud-Dawa (JuD), 190, 254, 259
Jamali, Zafarullah Khan, 29
Jamiat-i-Islami (Afghanistan) 126
Jamiat-ulema-Islami (JUI) (Islamic Society), 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 128, 244, 249
Jammu, 48–49, 139, 140, 142, 151, 163, 226
Jammu-Kashmir, 14, 139
Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front, 101
jangbazi, 127
Janjua, Asif Nawaz, 85
jawans, 31–32
jihad, 26, 79–80, 85, 96–98, 101–2, 125, 127, 136, 170, 227, 271
Afghan, 38
anti-Soviet, 70, 127–28, 194, 208, 226
in defense literature, 91–92
as defensive duty of the Pakistan Army, 91–92
internal, 253–58
Islam and, 237
LeT and, 257–58
against nonbelievers, 90–91
nonviolent, 236
under the nuclear umbrella, 226–60
nuclear weapons and, 226–60
jihadist movement, 79–80, 226. See also Islamist militant groups
Jinnah, Mohammad Ali, 42–45, 48–51, 54, 68–69, 78–79, 113, 130, 175–76, 292n3, 293n7
early death of, 90
“Faith, Unity, Discipline” motto, 81
jirgas, 110
Junagadh, 47, 48, 65
Junejo, Muhammad Khan, 23, 30
junior commissioned officers (JCOs), 32
Kabul, Afghanistan, 13, 104, 106–9, 116, 120, 123–24, 127, 129
Kabul University, 120, 126
Kahuta, Pakistan, 217
Kakul, Pakistan, 32, 56, 59, 79, 248
Kaluchak, Kashmir, attack on, 16, 139, 250
Kandahar province, Afghanistan, 125, 127, 128
Kapur, Paul, 12, 203, 215, 221–23, 303–4n7, 303n6, 304n8
Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP), 205
Karamat, Jehangir, 101, 211
Kargil–Dras sectors, 15, 250
Kargil War, 15–16, 23, 90, 150–53, 189, 219, 221, 223, 241, 250–51
Karmal, Babrak, 120, 123–24, 125, 300n20
Karzai, Hamid, 158–59, 245, 251
Karzai regime, 248
Kashmir, 10–12, 41, 65, 68, 81, 101, 186–88, 197, 219, 268, 279
1947–1948 war over, 139–41
1965 war over, 141–43
1999 Pakistani incursion into, 250
2001-2002 standoff with India and, 241<
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2002 elections in, 139
2005 earthquake in, 259
civil war in, 142
conflict in, 51
ethnic insurgencies in, 138
ethno-nationalist insurgencies in, 136
guerrilla movement in, 160
guerrilla operations in, 14
guerrilla warfare and, 235–36
independence movement in, 10, 241
indigenous uprisings in, 16
infiltration of, 92, 232
as integral to Pakistan’s national identity, 13
Kargil War and, 241
map of, 285
militants and, 226–28, 233, 243, 250
militants focused on, 244
Muslims in, 271, 273
nonstate actors in, 226
Pakistan Army and, 139–40, 142, 150–51, 153, 159–60, 163, 170
Pakistan’s attempt to seize in 1947, 14
Partition and, 294n12
people’s war in, 230
policy on, 240
Princely States and, 46–50
proxy war in, 14, 16
the Punjab and, 52–53
revisionism and, 1–2, 4, 6–7, 14–17
revisionism in, 18
Russia and, 115–16
Truman Administration and, 178
two-nation theory and, 278
UN and, 14, 115–16, 183, 186
UNSC and, 14, 115–16, 183
uprising in, 217
water security and, 289n4
Kashmiri identity, 101
Kashmiri insurgents, 226, 244, 259
Kashmiri militants, 151–52
Kayani, Ashfaq Parvez, 35, 79–80, 81, 88–89, 134, 135, 289n4
Kennedy, John F., 187–88
Kennedy Administration, 186–87
Kerry-Lugar-Berman legislation, 276
Khan, Liaquat Ali, 49
Khalis, Maulvi Mohammad Yunus, 101, 125
Khalistan, 137
Khalq party, 120, 123–24, 300n20
Khan, Abdul Qadeer (A.Q. Khan), 137, 203, 205, 207, 208, 210, 211, 217, 218, 242
Khan, Abdul Qayyum, 50
Khan, Akbar, 49, 50
Khan, Feroz Hassan, 210, 221, 302n1
Khan, Khan Abdul Ghaffar, 113–14
Khan, Liaquat Ali, 50, 54, 62, 69, 177, 178
Khan, Mohammad Ayub, 15, 20, 42, 62, 112, 120, 179–80
article for Foreign Affairs, 73–74
China and, 182, 185–86
coup by, 89
Friends not Masters, 72–75, 115, 155, 192–93
nuclear weapons and, 202, 204–5, 214, 236
Pakistan Army and, 67, 70, 75–78, 81, 86, 89–90, 92, 94, 101, 142–43, 145–47, 159
Khan, Munir Ahmad, 204–5
Khan, Sardar Mohammed Ibrahim, 49
Khan, Sardar Shaukat Hayat, 49
Khan, Tikka, 122
Khan, Yahya, 20, 33, 70, 94, 96, 146, 149, 189, 200, 204
Khan, Zafrullah, 176, 181
Khan of Qalat, 107, 298n8
Khar, Hina Rabbani, 219
Khomeini, Ruhollah, 19
Khruschev, Nikita, 115
Khudai Khidmatgar (Servants of God), 113
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