paramilitary forces, 151–52
popularity of, 280
preferred narratives of, 36
professional publications of, 36–38, 45, 50–51, 85–86, 89–91, 94, 102, 114, 155, 158–59, 166–68, 172, 191–98, 202–3, 225, 227–38, 279–80
public image of, 88–89
public opinion of, 88, 198–99
Punjabis in, 59–63
Punjab Regiment, 62
rebuilding of, 65
reconstitution of after Partition, 57–58
recruitment into, 31–32, 31–34, 58, 59, 60–61, 62–63, 84–85, 88, 269, 270, 276
religion and, 59, 81–85 (see also Islamization)
Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), 168, 169, 170, 195
revisionism and, 3, 4, 13, 17, 275
Saudi Arabia and, 83–84
senior military leadership of, 37–38
soldiers, 95–100
status of, 268
strategic culture and, 5, 8–9, 37–38, 40, 65, 276, 278–82
strategic depth and, 26, 112–19
Strategic Plans Division (SPD), 210–12
system of symbols and, 25–26
textbooks and, 30
traditions of, 59–63
Training and Evaluation Command, 17
US and, 165–66, 190–201
values of, 274
V Corps, 64
way of war, 1–12
X Corps, 64
XI Corps, 64
XII Corps, 64
XXX Corps, 64
XXXI Corps, 64
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), 203–4, 205, 229
Pakistan Frontier Force, 82
Pakistani Air Force, 84
Pakistaniat, 90
Pakistani Bureau of National Reconstruction, 113
Pakistani identity, ideology and, 67–71
Pakistan Institute for Peace studies, 289n3
Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and Transparency (PILDAT), 262, 263
Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH), 204
Pakistanis, 2009 survey of, 269, 271–74
Pakistan military, 259. See also specific branches; assistance from China, 189–90
day-after planners, 229–30
democratic parties and, 29–30
Developmental Control Committee, 218
discourse analysis, 34
discourse of, 174–75
division of, 40, 54–55
Employment Control Committee, 218
indigenization of, 58–59
interviews with personnel, 8
Joint Services Headquarters, 218
memoirs of senior leadership, 37–38
military publications of
noncommissioned officers (NCOs), 32
officers, 297n18
officers in, 58–59
reconstitution of, 55–56
training, 56, 59, 95–98 (see also specific institutions); US assistance to, 214
Pakistan Military Academy (PMA), 32–33, 56, 59, 79, 80, 95–96, 248
Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz (PML-N), 248, 265
Pakistan National Movement, 292n4
Pakistan Navy, 27–28, 296n3
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), 29–30, 132, 146, 262–63, 265
Pakistan Taliban. See Tehreek-e-Taliban-e-Pakistan (TTP)
Paktika province, Afghanistan, 121, 125
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 20
pan-Islamism, 90
Panjshir Valley, Afghanistan, 129
Parcham party, 120, 123–24, 300n20
Parliamentary Committee on National Security (PCNS), 262–63
Partition, 9, 11, 25, 27, 40, 46, 48–49, 56, 112–13, 119, 163, 294n12
Afghanistan and, 112
of Bengal, 51
division of armed forces, 55–57
division of financial resources, 56–57
division of military supplies, 55–57
Kashmir and, 294n12
legacy of, 65
plan for, 41
pre-Partition politics, 41–46
Princely States and, 46–51
of the Punjab, 51, 53–54
reconstitution of Pakistan Army after, 57–58
refugee crisis after, 58, 278
violence and, 41, 51, 55, 65, 278
Partition Council, 55
Party of Islam (Hizb-i-Islami), 125
Pasha, Shuja, 252
Pashtuns. See Pakhtuns
Pathankot, 53, 294n12
People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), 120, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127
people’s war, 26, 227, 230, 232–33, 236, 238–43
permissive action links (PAL), 302–3n3
Persia, 105, 298n3, 298n6
Peshawar, Pakistan, 33, 62, 109, 125, 126, 131, 181, 244, 248
pirs, 73
Pishin district, 108
plutonium, 205, 208, 209
Pokhran Desert, India, 205, 209
policy discourse, 66
Political Parties Act of 2002, 132
Poonch, Jammu, 48–49
Poonchis, 49
post-Revolutionary Russia, 104
Potohar. See Potwar
Potwar, 61
Powell, Colin, 219
Powers, Gary, 181
praetorianism, 20, 67, 102, 266
pragmatic elite ideology, 22
press, 75, 76. See also media
British, 208
Islamic values and, 70
Pakistani, 36, 153, 207
Pressler Amendment, 138, 156, 193, 208
Princely States, 46–51, 131, 139. See also specific states.
proliferation optimists, 222
proliferation pessimists, 221–22
Provincially Administered Tribal Areas (PATA), 131
Provisional Constitutional Order (PCO), 28
proxy fighters, 26, 219, 220, 226–27, 243
in Afghanistan, 2, 226
asymmetric, 250
doctrine of, 259
in India, 226
Islamist militant, 1–4, 16–17, 80–81, 194, 243–51, 268, 275
LeT proxies in India, 251–52
nuclear status and, 250–51
in Pakistan, 226–27
public opinion, 248–49
ethnicity and, 271–74, 272, 273–74, 275
Punjab, 12, 15, 26, 41, 48–49, 61, 111, 130–31, 142, 165, 168, 255, 269, 271–73, 295n19, 298n8
British Indian Army recruits from, 61, 62
crisis in, 221
ethnic insurgencies in, 136–38
Great Britain and, 106–7
incorporation into British India, 106
Indian attack on, 93
LeT and, 259
militants in, 295n1
Partition of, 51, 53–54
Sikh insurgency in, 16, 243
Talibanization of, 247–48
untangling, 51–54
Punjabi Muslims, in Indian Army, 59–63
Punjabis, 31, 143, 144, 269, 272–73, 300n23
2009 survey of, 271–73, 272, 273–74
in Pakistan Army, 59–63
Punjabi Taliban, 247–48
in West Pakistan, 300n23
Punjab province, Pakistan, 33, 44, 45, 60–61, 137
Qadir, Shaukat, 151–52
Qandahar, Afghanistan 108
Qatar, 2, 84
Qayyum, Abdul, 82
Qazi, Javed Ashraf, 35
Qazi, Shamsul Haq, 114, 234–35
qazi courts, 247
Quaid e Azam Group, 77, 78
Quaid-i-Azam, 42, 78, 79
Quaid-i-Azam University, sharia faculty in, 70
Quetta, Pakistan, 26, 33, 56, 100, 107, 125, 162, 248, 251, 295n19, 298–99n9
Quran, 70, 98–100, 256–57, 304n9
education and, 82
Quranic battles, 39
Qureshi, Hakeem Arshad, 92
1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldiers Narrative, 94
Rabba
ni, Barhanuddin, 120, 121, 122, 126, 127
race, 59–60, 294n13. See also caste martial races; nonmartial races
Radcliffe, Cyril, 51–52
Radcliffe Commission, 51–52
radicalism, 84
Raghavan, Srinath, 301n4
Rahe-e-Nijat, 119
Rahim, Khwaja, 50
Rahman, Abdur, 108, 109, 291–92n15, 299n11
Rahman, Inayatur, 246
Rahman, Sheikh Mujibur, 23, 94, 146, 149
Rais, Rasul Bakhsh, 103, 158–59, 297n1
Raiwind, Pakistan, 82
the Raj, 25, 40–41, 53, 55–56, 82, 108, 112–13, 129, 133, 293n7, 295n19, 296n6. See also British India
Afghanistan and, 105–6
assets of, 279
resources of, 11
strategic appraisal of threats, 104–5, 279
territories of, 46
Rajasthan, India, 205
Rann of Kutch, 94, 141, 142
Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 33, 49, 50, 61, 62, 64, 79, 268
razakars, 47, 151–52
Razmak, Pakistan, 121
Reagan, Ronald, 207, 209, 299–300n17
Reagan Administration, 208, 303–4n7
recessed deterrence, 221
Red Fort, attack on, 16, 250
redistributive justice, 247
refugees: after Partition, 58, 278
refugee camps, 128
Tibetan, 148
Rehman, Maulana Fazlur, 128
religion, 81–82. See also Islamization specific religions
British Army and, 72
education and, 98
motivation and, 95–98
Pakistan Army and, 59
religious stereotypes, 57
Report of the Abbottabad Commission, 21
revisionism, 3, 4–9, 16, 197–201, 279, 281–82, 289n1, 290n3, 291n9
abandonment of, 22
appeasement strategies and, 12
domestic politics of, 23
India and, 14
Kashmir and, 18
Pakistan Army and, 13, 17, 275
persistent, 8, 19–23, 23, 281–82
popularity of, 279–80
reasonable vs. unreasonable, 19–20, 22, 291n10
strategic culture and, 13–39
theories of, 290–91n8
unreasonable, 18–21, 21, 279
riwaj, 110
Royal Indian Military College, 72
Royal Indian Service Crops, 56
Russia, 54, 60–61, 104, 117, 129, 294n12, 298–99n9, 299–300n17. See also Soviet Union; Afghanistan and, 105–6, 107–9, 111
expansionism of, 105
India and, 242, 279
Kashmir and, 115–16
Saeed, Hafez, 253
Salafism, 126, 128
Sandeman, Robert G., 108
Sandeman system, 108
Sararogha Agreement, 246
Sattar, Abdul, 114, 125, 221
Saudi Arabia, 11, 26, 83–84, 122, 124, 126, 128, 169–70, 193–94, 226
India and, 2
Islamist guerillas and, 103
Pakistan Army and, 83–84
Pakistan’s alliance with, 26, 174
Saur Revolution, 123, 124, 125
Sayyaf, Abdur Rab Rasul, 126
Sayyaf, Ghulam Rasul, 120
sectarian groups, 26, 27, 244
sectarian violence, 2, 245, 246. See also specific groups
security, 4–5, 6–7, 8, 17, 166–67
through alliances, 174–201
in Balochistan, 117–18
in frontier region, 117–18
international, 278–82
nuclear program and, 202–25
of Pakistan, 18
security elites, 175
security managers, 130
self-censorship, 36
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 71, 129, 135, 138–39, 219, 254, 260
Shah, Zahir, 116, 120, 121
Shakai Accord, 245
sharia, 70–71, 129, 244–45, 247, 248, 271, 272
Sharia Faculty, Kabul University, 120
Sharif, Nawaz, 16, 23, 29, 150, 151–52, 153, 211, 259, 265
Sharif, Shahbaz, 248
Sharif Commission Report, 75–76
Shastri, Lal Bahadur, 142
Sherpao, Aftab Ahmed Khan, 190
Shia Muslims, 70–71, 84, 101, 169, 170, 244, 245, 247, 254–55, 278
shrines, Sufi, 77
Shuja-ul-Mulk (Shuja Shah Durrani), 106, 298n4
Shura Ittehad-ul-Mujahiden, 245
shuras, 248, 251
Siachen Glacier, 137, 151, 153
Sikhs, 41, 52, 53–54, 58, 60, 68, 72, 106
Sikh insurgency, 16, 223, 226, 243
Sikh separatists, 137
Sikhistan, 137
Simla Agreement, 150
Sindhis, 31, 63, 269
2009 survey of, 274
Sindhi nationalists, 136
Sindh province, Pakistan, 12, 33, 44–46, 56, 62, 87, 111, 130–31, 165, 170, 258, 295n19, 298n8
army recruitment from, 269, 271, 274
ethno-nationalist insurgencies in, 63
Great Britain and, 106–7
militants in, 137
Singh, Jaswant, 164
Singh, Maharaja Hari, 14, 48, 50, 52, 92, 139
Singh, Maharaja Ranjit, 106
Sino-Indian War, 142, 148, 182, 185, 186, 229, 233
Sino-Pakistani relations, 11, 148–49, 153, 174–75, 182–200, 281
Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), 244, 245, 248, 255
socialism, Islamic, 69
South Asia, 6, 54, 119, 137, 150. See also specific countries;
British decolonization of, 14
security system of, 110–11, 111
South Asia Foreign Area Officers, 33–34, 292n19
Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO), 63–64, 114, 180–84, 187, 188, 192–93, 233
South Waziristan, Pakistan, 89, 109–10, 119, 121–22, 131, 132, 244, 245, 248
Soviet Union, 104, 117, 123, 180–82, 192, 197, 200. See also Russia
Afghanistan and, 64, 114–17, 122–27, 133, 137, 169, 192–94, 206–9, 223, 226, 234
breakup of, 138
China and, 184–85
collapse of, 211
India and, 115–16, 123, 149, 186
Indo-Pakistani wars and, 143
invasion by, 182
Islamist guerilla–movement against, 103
jihad against, 194
nuclear weapons and, 217
Pakistan and, 114–16, 124, 125, 174, 299–300n17
US and, 149, 194, 222, 299–300n17, 303–4n7 (see also Cold War)
withdrawal from Afghanistan, 101, 103
Special Frontier Force (SFF), 148
Special Services Group, 122
stability–instability paradox, 222
Staff College, 56
Steering Committee, 55
strategic culture, 10, 13–39, 40, 104, 200, 276, 278–82
alliances and, 174–75
British India, 133
decision-making and, 278–79
definition of, 24–25
as heuristic tool, 9
nuclear weapons and, 11–12, 225
revisionism and, 5–9, 13–39
theories of, 24–25
strategic depth, 11, 134
Afghanistan and, 103, 279
definition of, 103
definitions of, 104
as geographical concept, 103–4
Great Britain and, 105, 111
Pakistan Army and, 26, 112–19
quest for, 103–35
Zia ul Haq and, 103
strategic elite, 104
strategic environment, 9, 27, 297–98n2
strategic geography, 111, 297–98n2
strategic studies literature, 24
strategy of masterly inactivity, 106
Students Islamic Movement of India, 251–52
subconventional warfare, 235, 2
50–51. See also guerrilla warfare
Sufi Islam, 76–77
Sufis, 101, 245, 254
terrorist attacks on, 245
Sufi saints, 254
Sufi shrines, 73
Suhrawardy, Huseyn Shaheed, 145
suicide bombings, 245, 246
Sunnah, 70, 257, 304n9
Sunni Islam, 70, 71, 75, 237
Sunni Islamist groups, 126
Sunni Muslims, 48, 70, 84, 169, 170, 244, 246
Supreme Court, 28, 70, 266
Swat Valley, Pakistan, 38, 89, 118, 131, 132, 244, 247
Symington Amendment, 206, 207, 302n2
Tablighi Jamaat, 82
Taliban, 89, 101, 117–18, 128–29, 170, 194, 198, 241–42, 300n18
Afghan, 79, 125, 128, 133, 196, 245, 248, 249, 251, 259, 296n3
hanging of Najibullah, 127
Pakistani, 79, 165, 195, 244, 248–50, 266, 296n3, 304n4 (see also Tehreek-e-Taliban-e-Pakistan (TTP))
Punjabi, 247–48
rise and fall of, 13, 127–29
in tribal areas, 246–47
US and, 246
talibs, 128
Taraki, Nur Muhammad, 120, 123–24, 300n20
tarbiyat (religious instruction) same as terbiyat, 98, 164
taxes (zakat), 70
Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi (TNSM), 246, 247
Tehreek-e-Taliban-e-Pakistan (TTP), 2, 79, 165, 244–50, 252, 266, 296n3, 304n4
terrorism, 2, 3, 16, 118, 136, 169, 190, 195, 219–20, 245, 255–56, 255. See also specific groups
Great Britain and, 248, 252
in India, 190, 217, 239, 250, 252, 259, 275
Islamist, 66, 79–80, 136, 138–39, 168, 169
nuclear weapons and, 210, 211
public opinion and, 248–49
Punjabi, 247–48
US and, 71, 129, 135, 138–39, 219, 242–43, 252, 254, 260, 275
war on terror, 200, 241, 242, 243, 260, 275, 282
Tet Offensive, 233
textbooks, 30, 36, 40, 75–76, 198
Tiwana, Muhammad Nazar, 239
Treaty of Gandamak, 108
Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation, 149
Treaty of Peshawar, 107
tribal areas, 2, 108, 110, 130–32, 248. See also specific areas; definition of, 131
post-2001 operations in, 38
Talibanization of, 247
Truman Administration, 175, 177, 178–79
Tsarist Russia, 104
Turkey, 178, 179, 180, 193, 298–99n9
“two-man” rule, 212
two-nation theory, 10, 43–45, 65, 68, 80–81, 89–90, 95, 136, 140, 150, 172–74, 278–80
U-2 flights, 181–82
Uban, Surjit Singh Uban, 148
Uighers, Islamist, 198
UK Foreign Office, 268
ulema, 70, 73, 77, 108, 109, 119, 244
umma, 119, 254
United Nations (UN), 112, 177, 180, 197. See also United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
1948 ceasefire and, 50, 140
Articles 34 and 35 of Charter, 140
Charter and Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 116
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