Appendix
1.See Deborah L. Tolman and Mary Brydon-Miller, eds., From Subjects to Subjectivities: A Handbook of Interpretive and Participatory Methods (New York: NYU Press, 2001).
2.For more on this, see Christian Smith, What Is a Person? Rethinking Humanity, Social Life, and the Moral Good from the Person Up (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 277–314.
Index
accepting fake friends, 32–3, 65–6
alienation, 10, 23
Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other (Turkle), 305n2
anonymity, 124–42. See also specific social media sites
authenticity/inauthenticity, 124–31, 136–7, 321n5
disappearance of posts on Snapchat, 131–5
discarding of identities, 127–8
discrimination and, 128, 139
honesty and, 7–8
illegal activity and suspension of, 135–6, 139
negativity and, 12
retweets, 131
sense of control due to, 126
summary conclusion, 140–2, 321n5
Yik Yak as dark side of, 135–42, 258, 259, 275
anxiety, 102–3
App Generation, The (Gardner and Davis), 49
Arab Spring, and social media, 310n10
Aristotle, 256, 265, 281
audience, use of term, 30–1, 65–6, 70, 75–6, 78–9
authenticity, as virtue for social media age, 258–9
authenticity/inauthenticity. See also forced positivity
abandonment of social media and, 241–3
anonymity and, 124–31, 136–7, 321n5
branding of self, 70–2, 73–4
comparison trap and, 21–2, 25–8, 38–9
Facebook official status, 189–91, 324n3
happiness effect and, xiii–xvii, 3–9
religious expression and, 112
selfie generation and, 90
Snapchat and, 132–4, 258
Yik Yak and, 258
being liked. See comparison trap, and likes/retweets
bikini pictures, 55–6
Bonds-Raacke, Jennifer, 304n10
boyd, danah, 47–8
branding of self, 63–80
as aspirational, 77–8
authenticity/inauthenticity, 70–2, 73–4
forced positivity, 67–8, 73–5
(happy) face of success, 68–72
as marketing campaign, 75–80
in multiple groups, 64–7
as online character/image, 70–2
political/social posts and, 65–7
profitability of, 79–80
reputation selves, 72–5, 78–9
use of business jargon, 76–80
wording of posts, 67, 76
Brown, Brené, xvi
Brown, Lyn Mikel, 93
bullying/cyberbullying, 15, 143–71
among middle/high school students, 146, 149, 152, 160, 164, 168, 322n3
desensitization to, 148
examples of, 27, 114, 157–9, 168, 169–70, 233
gender differences and, 146, 322n3
incidence of, 146
interviewee victims of, 149–55
preying on vulnerabilities, 15, 19–20, 152–4, 157, 168
rarity of non-anonymous, 145–9, 321n1
self-bullying, 19–20
sexual orientation and, 146
suicide as response to, 146, 168, 322n2
taking pleasure in others’ pain, 163–7
thin vs. thick skin, 159, 168–71
trolling, 159–63, 167
Yik Yak as conducive to, 148–9
business jargon, 76–80, 90–1
Campus Ministry programs, 278
casual sex. See hookups
ChatRoulette, 121–2
Clementi, Tyler, 146
Clover, 195
colleges and universities. See also sorority/fraternity life
adjustment to, 304n10
classroom bans on smartphones, 61, 271
counseling centers and, 279–80
hookup culture on, 197–9
need for classroom dialogue on effects of social media, 60–2, 266–7, 276–7
on professionalization of online brand, 53–4, 57, 61
recommendations for, 270–80
review of social media of students/prospective students, 11–2, 47, 49, 274–5, 309n3, 310n7
teaching how to unplug, 277–9
Wi-Fi-free spaces, 273–4
comparison trap, and likes/retweets, 16–42. See also student interviewees
accepting fake friends, 32–3, 65–6
alienation due to, 23
authenticity/inauthenticity, 21–2, 25–8, 38–9
competitive nature of posting, 24, 25–8, 36
conformity, 22
dependence on being liked and sense of self, 28–33, 305nn3–4
gender differences and, 31–2, 37
grading oneself, 19–20
high traffic times, 35–9
meaning attached to number of likes, 34–5
negative affect on resilience, 25–6
party photos, 25
popularity principle (Van Dijck), 19, 41, 305n3
posting of jokes, 30–1
postings as autobiography, 35–9
reuploading of photos, 32
self-esteem and, 17–20, 24, 38–9, 85, 151, 158, 307n8
summary conclusion, 39–42, 307n8
wording of posts, 30
conceited, use of term, 82
craft/cultivate/curate (3Cs), 15, 75–80. See also branding of self; forced positivity
creeping on people, use of term, 193
Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media, The (Van Dijck), 19
dating, rarity of, 197–8
dating apps. See Clover; Grindr; Hinge; Tinder
Davis, Katie, 49
define the relationship talk (DTR). See Facebook official status
digital detox, 328n1
Discipline and Punish (Foucault), 47
downvotes. See comparison trap, and likes/retweets; Reddit
duck face selfies, 99–100
emotional nuance, 171
empathy, 167
employers
curation of postings and, 54, 55–7, 90
religious expression in social media and, 111–2, 123
review of social media of job Seekers, 46–51, 57–8, 77–8, 182, 234, 308n2, 311n11
sexual orientation and, 182
entitlement. See selfie generation
envy, survey on, 307n8
evangelization. See religious expression, in social media
exhaustion, 10, 15, 24
Facebook, 7–8, 251. See also bullying/cyberbullying; comparison trap, and likes/retweets
cathartic forums on, 12
as CNN of envy, 39
comparison to Instagram, 109, 131, 178
comparison to LiveJournal, 127
comparison to Snapchat, 132–4
deactivation vs. deletion of accounts, 179
message update feature, 280–1
100 likes benchmark, 34
ranking of photos/posts, 36
reaction buttons, 306n5
selfies on, 86
social media résumés on, 49–51, 131
30 likes benchmark, 34–5
Timeline feature, 35–6
Facebook, professionalization of, 43–62
Cleanups, 46, 48–9, 51–3, 61, 180
economic background and, 53–8
forced positivity, 44–6
knowledge as power, 58–62
lack of privacy, 47–8
political/social posts, 44, 46, 49–51, 58–62
potential employers and, 46–51, 54, 55–7, 308n2, 311n11
as reformed behavior, 53–8
as virtual panopticism, 47
Facebook Cleanups, 46, 48–9, 51–3, 61, 180, 188–9, 259–60
Facebo
ok official status, 172–91
authenticity/inauthenticity, 189–91, 324n3
Cleanups of prior relationships, 188–9
coming out as gay and, 180–4
hiding of breakups, 175
number of likes due to, 173, 174
Orthodox Jewish matchmaking (shadchanim) and, 184–7
regrets about creating status after breakups, 177
reluctance to do, 175
self-esteem and, 173
shifting status back to single, 175, 177–9
FaceTime, 204
face-to-face interaction, 189–91
Fitbit, 277
flash-fame, 308n1
FOMO (Fear of Missing Out), 39–40, 306n7. See also comparison trap, and likes/retweets
forced positivity. See also authenticity/inauthenticity; branding of self; Facebook, professionalization of; headings at happiness effect
as defense against cyberbullying, 168–9
defined, 13–5
Facebook official status and, 176–9
as inauthentic, 243–5, 252
as survival mechanism, 255
Foucault, Michel, 47
4chan, 169
Freitas, Donna, experience with social media, 252–4, 297–9
friendships, initiated in-person, 189–91
front-facing cameras, 204
Gardner, Howard, 49
GDI (God Damn Independent), 5
gender differences
being liked and, 31–2, 37
bullying/cyberbullying and, 146, 322n3
religious expression and, 121
smartphones and, 121
gender of survey respondents, 95f
gender of survey respondents, 95–6
gender stereotypes
Instagram and, 94, 98–9
selfie generation and, 83, 92–102, 95f
Twitter and, 94
Generation Me (Twenge), 82
Gilligan, Carol, 93
Golden Rule, of social media, 148, 265–7
good troll, defined, 161
GPS, and social media, 135, 195, 197
Grindr, 195
happiness effect, overview, 1–15. See also methodology; student interviewees
alienation and, 10
authenticity/inauthenticity, xiii–xvii, 3–9
behavior based on anticipated approval, 4
compulsive monitoring of social media accounts, 13, 14f
forced positivity, 13–5
pervasiveness of monitoring others, 11–2
happiness effect, summary conclusion, 250–81. See also methodology
author’s experience with social media, 252–4
career counseling centers and, 279–80
college evaluation of students’ social media, 274–5
eight virtues for social media age, 256–64
Golden Rule, 265–7
learning how to unplug, 277–9
need for classroom dialogue on effects of social media, 266–7, 270, 276–7
pioneers of virtual world, 251–6
power vs. powerlessness, 280–1
social media as 24/7 performance, 254–5
unplugged programming, 270–3
Wi-Fi-free spaces, 273–4
hate speech, 135–6
highlight reel, use of term, 48–51, 68–9, 87
high school students. See bullying/cyberbullying
high traffic times, 35–9, 79
Hinge, 195
hookups, 195–202, 324n1
Hsing, Courtney, 167
illegal activity, 54, 55, 135–6, 139
inauthenticity. See authenticity/inauthenticity
Instagram, 251
comparison to Facebook, 109, 131, 178
example of name brand on, 312n5
forced positivity on, 7–8
perceived gender stereotypes and, 94, 98–9
profitability of brands on, 79–80
selfies on, 86
Internet famous, use of term, 79–80, 312n5
Is Everybody Hanging Out Without Me? (And Other Concerns) (Kaling), 39
It Gets Better Project, 146
It’s Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens (boyd), 47–8
Kaling, Mindy, 39
Konrath, Sarah, 167
learned ambivalence, 247–8
LGBTQ, identifying as, 180–4
likes. See comparison trap, and likes/retweets
LiveJournal (blog), 125–7
living in the moment, 18, 24, 91, 179, 210, 247, 261–2
manicure, use of term, 74–5
manipulation, of one’s audience, 66, 75, 76
materialism, 25
meanness online. See bullying/cyberbullying
Meeting at the Crossroads: Women’s Psychology and Girls’ Development (Brown and Gilligan), 93
methodology, 285–99. See also survey results
author’s experience with social media, 297–9
background for study, 285–8
interviews, 288–93
online survey, 293–7
middle school students. See bullying/cyberbullying
monitoring of others, pervasiveness of, 11–2, 47–8
Moss, Eleanor, 305n4
narcissism, 102
anti-selfie views of, 85
pioneers of virtual world vs., 251–6
in solo selfies, 82, 83, 99
neutrality, 259–60
Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle), 256
nude photos. See sexting
O’Brien, Edward, 167
official status. See Facebook official status
OkCupid, 195
O’Neill, Essenia, 312n5
online dating, 193–5, 198. See also Tinder
over-sharing, 78
panopticism (Bentham), 47
parents
blocking of, 64–5
with Facebook accounts, 144, 180–1
restrictions based on religion, 112–7
setting boundaries on child’s use of phones/social media, 272, 280
unawareness of child’s online activity, 151–2, 175, 186–7
party photos, 5, 25, 40, 54, 56, 97, 98, 159, 261
peer enforcers, 45
Pew Research Center, 95, 303n7, 304n10
photo touchups, 97, 101
pics or it didn’t happen, use of term, 90
play, as virtue for social media age, 262–3
political/social issues posts
branding of self and, 65–7
professionalization of online behavior and, 44, 46, 49–51, 58–62
sorority/fraternity life and, 4
Twitter and, 44, 46
popularity principle (Van Dijck), 19, 41, 305n3
predatory behavior, 11
privacy
attempts to protect, 78
generational conflict over, 47–8
nonexpectation of, 208
religious observances and, 115
sexual orientation and, 180–4
produced candidness, 98
profile, use of term, 73–4
provocative opinions, 15
publics, use of term, 75–6
Raacke, John, 304n10
real me vs. online me, 10
Reclaiming Conversation (Turkle), 229
Reclaiming Conversation: The Power of Talk in a Digital Age (Turkle), 76
Reddit, 135, 169–70
religious expression, in social media, 104–23
anti-social media views and, 120–2
authenticity/inauthenticity, 112
avoidance of idolizing trap, 109
awareness of secular lives and, 118–20
Christian student interviewees, 105–12, 122–3
gender differences and, 121
God as viewer of one’s postings, 105–8
as inflammatory, 110
Muslim student interviewee, 112–7
Orthodox Jewish student interviewees, 117–22, 184–7
sense of p
urpose and control, 110, 116
as subversion of conservatism in faith, 112–7
summary conclusion, 122–3
as tool for evangelization, 110–2, 319n3
religious practices, and unplugging, 277–8
reputation selves, 72–5, 78–9
retweets. See comparison trap, and likes/retweets
Sacco, Justine, 308n1
Sales, Nancy Jo, 196, 324n1
Savage, Dan, 146
self-bullying, 19–20
self-esteem
anonymity and, 128–9
comparison trap and, 17–20, 24, 38–9, 85, 151, 307n8
declaring relationship Facebook official and, 173
selfies and, 85, 87–8
selfie generation, 81–103
authenticity/inauthenticity, 90
duck face selfies, 99–100
gender stereotypes and, 83, 92–102, 95f
lovers vs. haters of selfies, 84–6
motives for taking/posting selfies, 82–4
narcissism in solo selfies, 82, 83, 99
perceived benefits of selfies, 87–9
produced candidness, 98
self-esteem and, 85, 87–8
selfie converts, 86–9
selfie culture, 89–92
summary conclusion, 102–3
use of business jargon, 90–1
use of differing platforms for selfies, 85, 86
Sex and the Soul (Freitas), 277, 280
sexting, 192–208. See also Snapchat
age-appropriateness of, 204–5
attachment style and, 325n3
ethics of, 193–5
by minors, 11, 303n5, 325n3
negative views on, 207–8
nude photos, 202, 204, 325n3
within relationships, 203, 206
religious lifestyle restrictions and, 116
riskiness of, 208
views on responsible manner of, 205–7, 208
sexual assaults, 9
sexual orientation, and social media, 146, 180–4, 200
sexual selfies, 96
shame, and comparison trap, 32, 41
shaming. See bullying/cyberbullying
shares. See comparison trap, and likes/retweets
Skype dates, 185
sleep, and smartphones, 327n2
smartphones, 209–30
addiction to, 208, 215–7, 219–21, 223
always “on call,” 213, 218–9
camera capabilities, 92, 204
classroom bans on, 61, 271
as distraction from responsibilities, 215, 327n1
effects on sleep, 327n2
examples of unplugging, 210–8
female sense of safety and, 225
gender differences and, 121
as necessity, 9
remembering life before, 221–5
summary conclusion, 228–30
unplugging forever, 226–8
use of relational language for, 223
Smith, Christian, 277
Snapchat, 8
authenticity/inauthenticity, 132–4, 258
as catharsis, 134
The Happiness Effect Page 42
