by John, Judith
Henry VII and his devoted wife Elizabeth of York lie together in their sumptuous monument at Westminster Abbey in London.
Henry VIII is pictured here as an erudite, strong and handsome man. However, he is much more recognisable in his later portraits, where his large girth, jowls and humourless expression belie his poor health and temper.
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TUDORS
HENRY VIII:
BIRTH OF A LEGEND
For a young man with a healthy sense of self-worth raised as a prince, Henry had no trouble accepting his new role as King. Taking on the mantle of monarchy with ease, Henry’s first and abiding priority was to make a strong, indelible mark on his kingdom. This was achieved beyond even his wildest dreams, making Henry VIII forever remembered as an autocratic, relentless and dynamic ruler. The most infamous King in British history had begun his 38-year reign.
‘Kings of England in times past never had any superior but God.’
The second son of King Henry VII, young Henry was born on 28 June 1491 at Greenwich Palace and groomed as a prince throughout his early childhood. His brother, Arthur, older than Henry by five years, would take the throne on their father’s death. Henry was therefore allowed a slightly more informal childhood to the heir to the throne. Known for being a learned man, Henry was tutored under John Skelton, a Cambridge scholar who taught him the classics. Lord Mountjoy mentored him in how to act like a gentleman. William Hone tutored him in theology, a subject in which he became very interested. In this religious education were the roots of his later dispute with the Catholic Church. At the time of Henry’s coronation and for almost 1000 years prior to that, Catholicism had been the only religion of England and much of Europe.
Becoming Henry
Henry excelled at sports, loving horse riding, jousting, hunting and wrestling in particular. He was also well known for his dancing skills. In contrast to his father, who was seen as a miserly killjoy, Henry knew how to enjoy himself. Made Duke of York at the age of three and appointed to the Order of the Garter at age five, Henry might have entered the Church – a common tradition for the second son – if his older brother, Arthur, had lived to be King.
POWER OF THE POPES
THE POPE, HOLY Father or Bishop of Rome was traditionally the successor of Saint Peter, the first head of the Roman Catholic Church. By the time of the Reformation, the papacy was a wealthy and powerful institution. Centuries of corruption and hypocrisy had turned the office into a shambles, with indulgences being sold to those who could afford them enabling people to buy their way into heaven. Papal power was one of the key issues of reform.
Popes Leo X and Clement VII were cousins from the Medici family, an influential Florentine dynasty that produced four popes in total, using them to extend their power by controlling both council and church.
But Arthur did not survive, and on his death in 1502 everything changed for Henry. In fact, the single event of Arthur’s death – the exact cause of which is unknown – resulted in arguably the most significant event ever to affect the English monarchy, changing the entire country and causing death and destruction on a massive scale. Later that year, Henry was made Duke of Cornwall, then became Prince of Wales – a title that had previously been bestowed on Arthur – in February 1503. Now strictly supervised, Henry could not enjoy the freedom he had been used to. His father, Henry VII, was constantly worried that something would happen to his only remaining male heir, so Henry made few public appearances and had to limit his sporting activities. The young prince was almost always within view of his father or grandmother, Margaret Beaufort. He had to remain within the court and ask permission for everything, not even being allowed money of his own. As a strong and strapping young man used to being given whatever he wanted, this was very hard for Henry to accept. As soon as he became King, Henry would never again allow anyone to wield power over him. From the moment he was crowned, Henry was in charge.
Pleasing the Public
Despite a lack of kingly training compared to his brother, the public were delighted that the young prince Henry was to be the new King of England. Henry VII had done much for the country, including keeping the peace for much of his reign, but people were tired of the increasing demands for taxes used to build up the King’s coffers. They were ready for change, and the handsome, dashing Henry VIII provided just that.
In fact, the single event of Arthur’s death … resulted in arguably the most significant event ever to affect the English monarchy …
Henry VIII is well known for his bulky and imposing girth, unbending demeanour and grumpy expression, but as a young man he was slim, active, handsome and virile. He looked the part on his coronation on 24 June 1509 (Midsummer’s Day), his six-foot-plus frame bedecked in jewelled robes of the richest velvet and the Imperial crown glistening on his head.
The previous day he had wed Catherine of Aragon, his brother’s widow, in a simple ceremony. First refusing to marry her, Henry capitulated after Henry VII’s death, saying that it had been his father’s dying wish for the betrothal to take place. Henry’s change of heart may also have been due to her generous dowry, which would have had to be returned to Spain with Catherine. The alliance with Spain that would be strengthened by the union was no small matter either, Spain then being a rich and mighty superpower in Europe.
This is the marriage contract of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. While the union was agreed in 1503, the couple did not marry until 1509.
Pictured here is the shrine to Our Lady of Walsingham. Ironically, the shrine Henry once visited as a pilgrim was destroyed during the Reformation, before being rebuilt in the 1930s.
Because Catherine had previously been married to Arthur, a papal dispensation needed to be granted by Pope Julius II, which Henry, at the time, declared himself happy with. This was despite Arthur himself claiming to have consummated the marriage with the memorable words ‘I have been this night in the midst of Spain’.
Catherine had remained in England for the seven years since Arthur’s death as Spanish ambassador. She was now 24 years old. A pretty, well-educated and deeply religious girl, Catherine felt it her duty to marry Henry. They were wed on 23 June and crowned King and Queen together in a spectacular ceremony at Westminster Abbey. Typical of Henry would be lengthy celebrations of splendour and extravagance, with entertainment, music, dancing and tables groaning under the weight of food and drink.
Arthur himself claiming to have consummated the marriage with the memorable words ‘I have been this night in the midst of Spain’.
One of Henry’s first acts after his coronation and marriage was an act of violence that cemented his decisive and ruthless reputation. It also showed the Privy Council who was in charge. In 1510, Henry ordered the execution of Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley – two of his father’s most despised financial advisors – on the grounds of treason. Despite little or no corroborating evidence, Henry proved that his word was law and the men were duly executed, having very few supporters. Henry’s propensity to execute anyone who stood against him or got in his way would become legendary throughout his reign. This bold move showed him as a force to be reckoned with – a powerful, unbending King who was unforgiving of mistakes.
Henry: The Lover
While ruling his court and country tightly, Henry returned to the ‘great matter’ of providing the nation with heirs. Having seen for himself how precarious childhood was (as well as Arthur’s death at 15, Henry lost two siblings who died in early childhood), Henry was eager to produce an army of male heirs. Catherine fell pregnant that year and gave birth on 31 January 1510. Delighted and proud that she had conceived so quickly, joy turned to disappointment at the miscarriage of a daughter. Quickly trying again, Catherine fell pregnant four months later and this time – on New Year’s Day in 1511 – she successfully gave birth to a baby boy. Henry was ecstatic and the whole country celebrated. Far from the anti-religious man he is sometimes portrayed as, Henry was deeply Catholic, regularly attending mass. He now ga
ve thanks to God by taking the pilgrimage of Walsingham to the shrine of Mary to pray for his son and heir.
Catherine of Aragon did not have much luck with her marriages. Arthur died just months after they wed leaving Catherine adrift in a foreign country. It would be eight years before she finally married Henry VIII, at great personal cost and distress.
However, grief would soon follow joy. The boy, named after his father, died suddenly, destroying his father’s delight and planting the first seeds of marital tension between husband and wife. While Henry was clearly able to father children, rumours abounded that Catherine was not so blessed.
Catherine fought against these rumours and finally, after several miscarriages, she gave birth to a healthy baby girl on 18 February 1516. Henry was pleased that she had managed to give birth, despite it not being the longed-for son, and they kept trying. However, Catherine was now 31 years old and unable to bear any more children. Henry, rumoured to have had affairs during Catherine’s troubles, now lost any sense of affection for his wife and no longer even tried to hide these from her or the court. The cruel King took up with the young and pretty Elizabeth (Bessie) Blount, with whom he had a son in 1519. That was the last straw for Henry’s marriage. He was clearly able to have a healthy son, which meant that the problem lay with Catherine. Something had to be done.
Henry named the boy Henry Fitzroy and openly acknowledged his son, making the boy Duke of Richmond in 1525. He also started plotting to rid himself of his useless, barren wife.
Henry’s mother, the lovely Elizabeth of York, had long been Henry’s model for the perfect wife, mother and Queen. Fertile, loving and docile, Elizabeth had never defied Henry VII, a trait that he found most desirable. Henry’s self-belief was so secure that he would find it hard to understand why people would not willingly submit to his every whim, dealing with those who stood up to him most harshly. Catherine would find this out soon enough.
Bessie was not Henry’s first or last mistress. For a noble, having a mistress was expected, for the King it was almost encouraged. Henry – who enjoyed the chase as well as the feeling of falling in love – had several lovers and potentially several illegitimate children. His changeable and demanding nature made it difficult, even impossible, for any one woman to make him truly happy for any length of time. This same nature would mean his male advisors often fell out of his favour, usually resulting in their execution. However, despite Henry being well-known for his six wives and numerous lovers, there were many other kings who were far more promiscuous, such as Henry’s own grandfather, Edward IV.
Henry: The Fighter
Henry, while busy with affairs of the heart, was also busy with affairs of the state. He knew that the most successful kings grew their kingdoms and started trying to do exactly that. In sharp contrast to his peacekeeping father, Henry wanted the glory of war at any cost. While many of his advisors begged for restraint, others felt the time was right to press their advantage of the alliance with Spain. Ferdinand II, Catherine’s father, was a willing ally, also wanting to strengthen his lands while weakening France. So it was, in the hot summer on 1512, that 18 English warships arrived in Spain. The plan was to join forces with Spanish troops and march into France across the Spanish border.
However, the deceptive Ferdinand had other plans. Happy to allow the English to guard the French border, he led his troops in a separate battle against Navarre in Spain. The English were left with no provisions, no shelter and no beer in the scorching Spanish sun. Disease quickly spread and there were many casualties. By October that year, the depleted troops headed for home, having achieved nothing apart from massive reductions in numbers and morale.
But Henry’s lust for the heat of battle was by no means diminished. Furious at Ferdinand’s betrayal – which he also partly blamed Catherine for – Henry joined forces with Maximilian I, the Holy Roman Emperor. In the spring of 1513 the English army went into battle once more. Sailing to Calais, followed later by the King, they laid siege to Therouanne in Flanders, taking the small town with ease. Pressing their advantage, they moved on to Tournai. The city fell after a week and Henry and his troops celebrated his victory as the great glory of England. Henry had proved himself a leader of men and a true, valiant King. Henry and his troops sailed home in triumph.
The cost of this war, however successful, was immense. Henry VII had left behind a fortune, yet most of the excess had been gobbled up by Henry’s desire to extend his authority. This meant taxes, which were never popular and which started discontented grumblings about Henry VIII. However, his victory in France, coupled with political events in England, meant that the charismatic King had the admiration and respect of most of his people.
Catherine of Aragon’s father, Ferdinand II, is pictured here. Ferdinand and Isabella had six other children including Joanna the Mad, whose neuroses caused her to be held in solitary confinement.
This picture shows the meeting between Henry VIII and Maximilian I, the Holy Roman Emperor, prior to the English invasion of France in 1513. Henry was desperate to win back France.
Home and Away
England’s ever-restless neighbour, Scotland, took umbrage at Henry’s attack on their old ally, France. Taking advantage of the King’s absence, in 1513 James IV led his troops over the border into England. Catherine, whom Henry left in charge as Regent in his absence, led the English against this uprising. At the Battle of Flodden Field the English quickly gained the upper hand, especially when James was killed after being hit by an arrow. The Scots were crushed and the victory complete. As a token of her love and admiration for Henry, Catherine sent him James’ torn and bloodied coat (rumour has it that she also wanted to send his severed head!).
While one could argue that Henry’s actual involvement in either combat was minimal – to say the least – both victories were won in his name and he was celebrated as the true, courageous King he always believed himself to be.
With Henry having proven himself in battle, there now followed a period of relative calm in England. In reality, this may have been down to the lack of funds available for another war, but whatever the reason, England enjoyed the tranquility. All this was to change with the tumultuous and violent reformation.
The English quickly gained the upper hand, especially when James was killed after being hit by an arrow.
Albrecht Dürer painted this likeness of Maximilian I in 1519, the year of Maximilian’s death. Dürer also made woodcut prints of the egotistical emperor.
With Henry’s younger sister, the vivacious Mary, promised to King Louis XII, an uneasy alliance sprang up between the old enemies of England and France. This was due in part to Thomas Wolsey’s diplomatic endeavours. Wolsey had been rising through the ranks of Henry’s most trusted advisors for years. It was he who arranged the Field of the Cloth of Gold, a lavish meeting ground for Henry and Francis I, the new French King and Louis’ cousin, in 1520. While the event was a spectacle and celebrations, feasting and tournaments went on for two weeks, there was little progress in the good relations between the two monarchs. England’s choice to support the stronger empire of Charles V was seen as treachery when Charles declared war on France in 1521.
The Field of the Cloth of Gold was the site of an extravagant parley between Henry VIII and Francis I of France in June 1520. The dragon in the top left corner may then have been thought to be a portent, but was equally likely to be a flamboyant firework.
Moving On
As King, it was no less than Henry’s duty to provide his country with male heirs. This would be tricky while he was still married to Catherine, as any illegitimate children would not be able to enjoy a secure throne after his death. Henry also held little faith that his daughter, Mary – or indeed any woman – would be able to hold on to the throne. Henry had to remarry, and quickly. Turning to what he saw as the greatest weapon at his disposal – Catherine’s previous marriage to his brother – Henry took action. Although she had sworn their marriage had never been consummated, which, for
such a pious girl, was very likely the truth, Catherine and Arthur had been married for five months before Arthur’s death and the prince had told his courtiers that they had been lovers. Henry was very familiar with the Bible from his religious education and grasped on to a passage from Leviticus, which stated that:
TREATY OF LONDON
THE TREATY OF London was signed in 1518 after Charles V had become King of Spain on his grandfather Ferdinand’s death. Signatories were the European nations of England, France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, Burgundy, the Netherlands and the papacy. Each superpower agreed not to attack any of the others and all would stand together if any faced an attack.
This raised England to being recognized as an important ally and European player, as it was because of the intercession of England that the treaty had been successfully signed.
