by John, Judith
Part of the dispute was England wanting to force reformation on the largely Catholic population of Scotland.
Henry II of France supported the ‘Auld Alliance’ with Scotland against England. Cementing this alliance, his son, Francis II, married Mary Queen of Scots in 1558.
It is rumoured that Mary of Guise had herself refused an offer of becoming Henry’s sixth wife, fearing for the state of her neck!
Mary, Queen of Scots’ mother, Mary of Guise, was a dominant figure in the Anglo– Scottish negotiations, replacing Hamilton as her daughter’s Regent in 1554. While assuring Henry that the marriage between Mary and Prince Edward would go ahead when Mary was ten, she kept up negotiations with France to ensure that her daughter was safe from the tempestuous English King. It is rumoured that Mary of Guise had herself refused an offer of becoming Henry’s sixth wife, fearing for the state of her neck!
The resulting war hit the King’s depleted coffers hard, running into what would today be hundreds of millions. Seymour took steps to gain money by debasing the pound, the effect of which would cause inflation and financial hardship for many of Edward’s subjects. Seymour also set up the enclosures initiative, which had a profound affect on land ownership and caused widespread fears of possible abuses. Things were unravelling fast for Seymour. A combination of religious reforms, unpopular decisions and public rebellions heightened the tension in England. Events came to a head in 1549 and brought about the beginning of the end for Seymour, with outbreaks of rebellion and violence occurring across the realm.
This portrait of Mary of Guise, the wife of James V of Scotland, shows her to be a strong and determined woman. Mary later became Regent of Scotland, but her Catholic beliefs were the cause of dissent with the growing number of Protestants in Scotland.
Catherine de Medici was the wife of Henry II of France. While she was largely sidelined by Henry’s lover, Diane de Poitiers, throughout his lifetime, Catherine could be ruthless and closely supervised each of her three sons during their time as ruler of France.
A combination of religious reforms, unpopular decisions and public rebellions heightened the tension in England.
Troubles in France
As well as quashing the Scots, Edward and his protectors had to deal with attacks from France. Francis I died in April 1547 and was succeeded by his son, Henry II (Francis II’s father). Henry II was eager to support the ‘auld alliance’ with Scotland as well as getting the English out of Boulogne, which he wanted to take back for France. While Seymour had the support of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor would only intervene if Calais (still under English rule) was attacked. Then, in 1549, Henry II’s fleet set sail for England on the attack but were beaten back around Jersey by the superior English Navy. Dudley later negotiated with Henry II to sell Boulogne back to France, upholding the two countries’ original settlement.
Kett’s Rebellion
Originating in Wymondham, Norfolk, the rebellion started as a protest against the enclosure of sections of land in England. These enclosures meant that certain parcels of land were worth a lot more money than others. The enclosed land could be used for rearing sheep for the increasingly affluent wool trade. It also meant that less land was available for growing crops at a time when inflation and the population were rising quickly and food would often run short. Minor rumblings of unrest first broke out across the country in 1548, the root cause of which was a religious dispute, social unrest and the enclosures law. Many men involved literally had nothing better to do as their source of livelihood had been robbed. These upsurges of discontent may have inspired Robert Kett and his followers.
Seymour, sensing the unpopularity of the laws, ordered an enquiry but it was predominantly led by landowners who benefitted from the enclosures rule. Unsurprisingly, they ruled it to be fair practice. When the fences put up by some of the more wealthy landowners were kicked down, Robert Kett, himself a landowner, joined the rebels and led them into further revolt. Their numbers quickly building to thousands, they stormed Norwich – then England’s second largest city – demanding a halt to these unwanted practices.
Robert Kett had previously supported the commoners when their village church was threatened with being torn down. Kett now took their side again and organized the disgruntled rebels into a coherent mass. From their camp at Mousehold Heath near Norwich they drew up a list of grievances, which was sent to Seymour in July 1549. But the rebels received a tough response – their demands would not be met. They were ordered to disband immediately or face arrest. However, if they did disperse the uprisers would all be pardoned. Refusing, Kett’s men stayed put, with the King’s enforcers – who had not expected refusal – having no way of forcing their removal.
Forced into movement, Kett and his followers attacked Norwich. William Parr, the Marquess of Northampton, was sent with troops to force an end to the rebellion. However, Kett and his men met the challenge, forcing Northampton to retreat. Seymour then sent in John Dudley and a far greater force to impose order. Faced with a vastly increased army, the rioters found their position weakened and their supply lines cut off. Sensing their defeat, Kett wanted to discuss terms with Dudley, but the rebellion was now to end in bloodshed. Kett’s men fought bravely for their cause, but eventually the superior might and weaponry of Dudley’s army proved too much. Up to 2000 of the rebels were killed, with many more fleeing for their lives. Kett was captured and taken to the Tower. He was returned to Norwich in December 1549, where he was hanged from the castle walls as a warning to others. There his body remained until his rotting flesh started peeling from his bones. In addition to the thousands already dead, 300 men were executed for their part in the rebellion. No reforms were made and the end result was merely to weaken Seymour’s hold over the King and council.
… the rebellion started as a protest against the enclosure of sections of land … It also meant that less land was available for growing crops at a time when inflation and the population were rising quickly …
This illustration shows Kett’s Rebellion of 1549. Trees often appear in images of the Rebellion, signifying Kett’s Tree of Reformation on Mousehold Heath, under which the rebels held their camp.
Sensing their defeat, Kett wanted to discuss terms with Dudley, but the rebellion was now to end in bloodshed … eventually the superior might and weaponry of Dudley’s army proved too much.
Kett and his followers believed they were acting for the King, who was being mislead by his advisors with agendas of their own. However, a royal proclamation was issued against the rebels to quash the disturbance.
Backing Mary
As strict reforms were closely followed by such rebellions, support for Mary to take over as monarch in the place of the young King was rising. Mary continued to hear mass in Latin and even offered a general invitation for anyone who wanted to join her at mass to do so on Whitsun in 1548, the very day of enforcement of Cranmer’s English mass. Her open devotion to the traditional Catholic faith meant that conservatives who thought Edward’s advisors had gone too far were more open about defying the new reforms. If Mary could see her own brother as a heretic, so could her supporters! Many also feared for their very souls, as the reforms embracing faith and devotion were all very well, but years of Catholic doctrine had taught people there was more to securing a place in heaven than faith alone. Eager to escape the possible fires of hell, the public saw Mary as their saviour, a role she would later take to heart. In addition, many superstitious people saw the bad harvests and lack of food and money as signs from God.
Mary continued to hear mass in Latin and even offered a general invitation for anyone who wanted to join her.
During a family gathering for Christmas 1550, Edward – then aged 13 – would reduce Mary to tears as he berated her heretical ways. With both siblings as stubborn as each other, it would later be Edward in tears of frustration as Mary called on the support of her powerful cousin, Charles V.
Seymour’s Fall and Dudley’s Rise
These
catastrophic and violent events were blamed largely on Seymour’s mishandling of affairs and his efforts to feather his own nest. With even his old friends and supporters turning against him, Seymour faced a serious challenge to his title of Protector. Panicking, he took Edward to Windsor Castle on 7 October, keeping the King, now 12 years old, a virtual prisoner. The council took steps to remove Seymour’s powers and he was arrested on 11 October 1549. Edward was returned to power – although still in his minority – and Seymour was sent to the Tower in disgrace. John Dudley took control of the monarch. Edward was returned to safety and councilmen approved by Dudley had to be with him at all times.
Seymour, by this time locked deep within the belly of the Tower, signed articles of submission in the hope of winning back his freedom and authority. He was later pardoned and reconciled to Dudley in February 1550, when Dudley was made Lord President of the Council and was sure of his authority. Later trying to usurp Dudley’s new power, Seymour was arrested for treason on 16 October and executed on 22 January 1552. Dudley later admitted that many of the charges were fabricated.
Dudley was now firmly in charge of the young King.
Good Duke, Bad Duke
The similarities between both of Edward’s protectors are many, despite the well-known presentation of Seymour as the ‘good duke’ and Dudley as the ‘bad duke’. As we have seen, both were self-serving, ambitious and manipulative. Seymour was seen as arrogant, largely ignoring the council and ruling through proclamations. Dudley is thought to have set brother against brother, knowing that both Seymour brothers wanted to use their family connection to gain authority over the boy. His machinations certainly led to discord between them.
However, Dudley is also thought to have acted out of fear for his family and it could be argued that Seymour was doing his best to leave Edward with a strong country, united under a single religion that Edward fervently believed in. Another interesting note is that under Seymour’s protectorate, there were no religious executions for heresy. It was also here that the 1414 Act for the Burning of Heretics was removed from statute law.
As well-meaning as Edward Seymour insisted he had been, the Lord Protector was executed at Tower Hill in 1552. By this time, Dudley, his rival for power, had already supplanted his role as protector.
It is true that life settled down somewhat under Dudley. He avoided war with France by negotiating the return of Boulogne in 1550. The wars and rebellions were over and England would soon have a King able to rule his own country. For a brief time in 1552, it looked as if peace would persevere. Little did anyone foresee the turbulent years that lay ahead.
In 1552, Dudley started preparing Edward for his majority reign. He also negotiated with Henry II of France for Edward to marry Elisabeth of Valois, Henry’s daughter, to secure peace between England and France. Edward’s death would render these negotiations moot and Elisabeth would later marry Philip II of Spain after Mary I’s death in 1558. Edward started to sit in on council meetings more regularly and started signing royal warrants in his own hand. Even though he was only 13 years old it was easy to see that Edward shared his father’s expectation of being obeyed. Had Edward reached his majority, he would likely have made a forcible and effective monarch. But less than a year later, Edward was dead.
Later trying to usurp Dudley’s new power, Seymour was arrested for treason on 16 October and executed on 22 January 1552. Dudley later admitted that many of the charges were fabricated.
JOHN DUDLEY
JOHN DUDLEY WAS the son of Edmund Dudley, Henry VII’s financial advisor who was executed as a scapegoat by Henry VIII. He was a powerful, charismatic man who was loyal to whoever sat on the throne. This has resulted in depictions of him as hypocritical and cynical, not having any strong faith of his own. His Machiavellian part in the ‘Devise for the Succession’ making Lady Jane Grey (who would soon become his daughter-in-law) Queen shows his lust for power. There are even rumours that Dudley hastened Edward’s death by poisoning him. Dudley’s downfall mirrored his father’s, despite all his attempts to hold on to power by pleasing the current monarch. Deeply hated towards the end of his life, Dudley was arrested and taken to the Tower before being executed on 22 August 1553 (illustrated below).
Contracting measles in April 1552, Edward was very ill for several months. He did start to make a recovery and even went on procession around the country over the summer to tour his realm and get to know his country. However, by Christmas on 1552, the young King was seriously ill. Edward grew worse over the next few months, making his decision about his successor vitally important.
Passing on the Crown
However much Edward was led by strong, manipulative men, he was his father’s son. Edward knew his own mind and expected others to give him what he wanted. The reforms made in England throughout his minority reign were supported by him, even done on his say so. Edward’s succession laws prove that he did what he could to prevent a Catholic Queen ruling his country and overturning these reforms, even if this Queen was his beloved sister.
John Dudley is often seen as a villain in comparison to Seymour, but history suggests that both men sought power over the boy king. Dudley did not live long after Edward’s death.
Edward Seymour continued the debasement of the coinage that Henry VIII’s government started, meaning that the value of coins dropped further during Edward VI’s reign. Mary I planned to reverse this debasement, but she died before her reforms were initiated.
What was right and good – in his eyes – was right and good for everyone, especially a woman who had been made a bastard.
As Edward’s current successor was his sister Mary, neither he nor his council were content with leaving England under the control of a single, Catholic female. Edward drafted his ‘Devise for the Succession’ in May 1553, which bypassed both Mary and Elizabeth – it not being possible to disinherit Mary and not her sister – leaving the country in the hands of Lady Jane Grey until such time as she was to produce male heirs. Jane Grey was the granddaughter of Henry VIII’s sister, Mary Tudor, and Charles Brandon, whose father had been Henry VII’s standard-bearer. William Brandon had died at the hand of Richard III at Bosworth Field, ostensibly saving Henry VII’s life. Having Jane Grey as his successor would leave the crown in the hands of a Tudor descendant who would both continue the family line and uphold the Protestant beliefs that were so important to Edward.
MONEY MATTERS
BEGINNING UNDER HENRY VIII and continuing in earnest under Edward VI, the debasement of the currency hit new lows. This meant that more coins could be made, making extra coinage for the government, but they would not be worth so much when in use. Continued debasement also meant that prices and inflation shot up and trade with England from foreign countries declined. Originally being made of fine silver, the 9.25 silver sterling coins were introduced in 1158.
By Edward’s rule, silver coins were made up of only one-third silver, the rest being cheaper metals, meaning that their value had dropped significantly. The coins themselves were said to blush in embarrassment, with the pinkish copper literally shining through the silver.
How far John Dudley manipulated Edward is unknown, but it was the spring of 1553 – after Edward had first fallen ill – that Dudley proposed the union between his son, Guildford, and Jane Grey. They were married on 25 May that same year, although Jane did deny her husband the crown matrimonial, limiting his influence as King. While the Succession originally ruled that only Jane’s male children could be heirs to the throne, the will was changed so that Jane herself could be crowned Queen. At only 16 or 17 years old, she would have been easy to control through her husband and father-in-law, leaving the crown effectively in Dudley’s grasping hands.
Edward’s Devise contravened Henry VIII’s third Act of Succession, which named both his daughters as successors should Edward die without leaving a male heir, effectively making it against statute law. However, Edward excluded them both on the grounds of illegitimacy, Henry carelessly never renoun
cing his daughters’ legitimacy before his death. Edward’s will was passed by the council with Dudley ensuring that everyone signed it. Dudley even kept tight control over who visited the ailing King, not letting either Mary or Elizabeth speak to Edward prior to his death should they change his mind.
Edward addressed his public for the final time on 1 July 1553. The crowds were appalled by his wasted, frail appearance. He was now in pain, finding it hard to stand and breathe. Edward died five days later on 6 July, the actual cause of his death being unknown, possibly tuberculosis. He joined his ancestors in Henry VII’s Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey, the trusted Cranmer performing the young King’s funeral rites.
Edward drafted his ‘Devise for the Succession’ in May 1553, which bypassed both Mary and Elizabeth … leaving the country in the hands of Lady Jane Grey until such time as she was to produce male heirs.
Things might have turned out very differently if Mary had not been allowed to leave London for East Anglia, which enabled her to raise sympathy and forces. Any progress made during Edward’s brief reign was soon to be wiped out as Mary supplanted her own dominance over her council and country. And what of the Nine Days’ Queen? A vulnerable pawn who would be executed before she reached the age of 20, Jane Grey was initially spared execution by Mary and remained a prisoner in the Tower, to which she was taken to be crowned Queen of England and would never leave. Only after the Wyatt Rebellion, where Jane might have been used as a figurehead to supplant Mary, did Jane’s death become more of a necessity – she was executed along with her husband and father.
