World War II’s battles: Sidney Pollard, The International Economy Since 1945. New York: Routledge, 1997, 2; Leon Clarck, The Beginnings of the Cold War—Civilizations Past and Present the Bipolar “North,” 1945–1991, accessed at http://history-world.org/beginnings_of_the_cold_war.htm: “The Elusive Peace—Soviet And American Spheres,” Introduction.
That didn’t count the millions: William H. Chamberlin, “Khrushchev’s War with Stalin’s Ghosts,” Russian Review, 21, no. 1 (January 1962), 3–10.
Khrushchev blamed Stalin: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 332; Nikita S. Khrushchev, “Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva,” Voprosy Istorii, no. 2 (1995), 76.
Kroll had been born: Hans Kroll, Lebenserinnerungen eines Botschafters. Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1967, 15–17; Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, 205–206.
“Ulbricht lobby”: Eberhard Schulz, Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, Gert Leptin, and Ulrich Scheuner, GDR Foreign Policy. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1982, 197.
Marta Hillers’s only consolation: Anonymous, A Woman in Berlin: Eight Weeks in the Conquered City: A Diary. Translation of Eine Frau in Berlin by Philip Boehm. New York: Picador, 2006; Jens Bisky, “Kleine Fussnote zum Untergang des Abendlandes.” Süddeutsche Zeitung, 06/10/2003, 10.
Published for the first time: Ilko-Sascha Kowalczuk and Stefan Wolle, Roter Stern über Deutschland: Sowjetische Truppen in der DDR. Berlin: Christoph Links, 2010, 38.
One such review: Maria Sack, “Schlechter Dienst an der Berlinerin / Bestseller im Ausland—Ein Verfälschender Sonderfall,” Tagesspiegel, 12/06/1959, 35.
The East German relationship: Kowalczuk and Wolle, Roter Stern über Deutschland, 105.
The East German pity: Silke Satjukow, Besatzer: “Die Russen” in Deutschland 1945–1994. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008, 41, 43.
The latest escape: “Vopo feuert auf Sowjet-Soldaten—Sie wollten in den Westen,” Bild-Zeitung, 01/04/1958; “Sowjets jagen Deserteure,” Abendzeitung (Munich), 01/03/1958.
That dread had grown: Jan Foitzik, Berichte des Hohen Kommissars der UdSSR in Deutschland aus den Jahren 1953/1954, in Machtstrukturen und Entscheidungsmechanismen im SED Staat und die Frage der Verantwortung (Materialien der Enquete-Kommission “Aufarbeitung von Geschichte und Folgen der SED-Diktatur in Deutschland,” Band II, 2), Baden-Baden, 1995, 1361; http://www.ddr-wissen.de/wiki/ddr.pl?17._Juni_1953.
2. KHRUSHCHEV: THE BERLIN CRISIS UNFOLDS
“West Berlin has turned”: The Current Digest of the Soviet Press, 10, nos. 40–52 (1958), 17.
“The next President in his first year”: Freedom of Communications: Final Report of the Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, Part III: The Joint Appearances of Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice President Richard M. Nixon and Other 1960 Campaign Presentations. 87th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Report No. 994, Part 3. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961.
Standing at the center: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 396; Nikita S. Khrushchev, For Victory in Peaceful Competition with Capitalism. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1960, 38.
“The time has obviously arrived”: U.S. Department of State, Documents on Germany 1944–1985, Office of the Historian, Khrushchev Address, November 10, 1958. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1985, 542–546.
The Poles weren’t the only surprised: Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, 195–211; Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 396–403.
Khrushchev explained to Gomulka: “New Evidence on the Berlin Crisis 1958–1962,” “Minutes from the Discussion between the Delegation of the People’s Republic of Poland and the Government of the USSR” (October 25–November 10, 1958), Cold War International History Project Bulletin (CWIHP-B), Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, No. 11 (1998); retrieved from Douglas Selvage, Khrushchev’s November 1958 Berlin Ultimatum: New Evidence from the Polish Archives, 200–203, www.wilsoncenter.org; Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, 207–209.
“Now the balance of forces”: CWIHP-B, No. 11 (1998), in Selvage, Khrushchev’s November 1958 Berlin Ultimatum, 202; Matthias Uhl and Vladimir I. Ivkin, “‘Operation Atom’: The Soviet Union’s Stationing of Nuclear Missiles in the German Democratic Republic, 1959,” CWIHP-B, No. 12/13 (2001), 299–307.
What he told his Polish: CWIHP-B, No. 11 (1998), in Selvage, Khrushchev’s November 1958 Berlin Ultimatum, 200–201; Nikita S. Khrushchev, For Victory in Peaceful Competition with Capitalism, 738.
He had also: Matthew Evangelista, “‘Why Keep Such an Army?’ Khrushchev’s Troop Reductions,” CWIHP Working Paper No. 19, Washington, D.C.: December 1997, 4–5; Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 379.
The second source of Khrushchev’s: Robert Service, Comrades! A History of World Communism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007, 314; Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, 148.
The third source of Khrushchev’s: Service, Comrades!, 310; Nikita S. Khrushchev, “Khrushchev Remembers, Part III: The Death of Stalin, the Menace of Beria,” Life, December 11, 1970, 54–72.
At the time, Khrushchev: Hope M. Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall—Soviet–East German Relations. 1953–1961. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003, 27; Mark Kramer, “The Early Post-Stalin Succession Struggle and Upheavals in East-Central Europe: Internal-External Linkages in Soviet Policy Making (Part1),” Journal of Cold War Studies, 1, nos. 1–3 (1999), 12–28.
The March 1953 figure of 56,605: Bundesministerium für Gesamtdeutsche Fragen (BMG), ed., Die Flucht aus der Sowjetzone und die Sperrmassnahmen des Kommunistischen Regimes vom 13. August 1961 in Berlin, 1961; Helge Heidemeyer, Flucht und Zuwanderung aus der SBZ/DDR 1945/1949–1961, Die Flüchtlingspolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland bis zum Bau der Berliner Mauer. Düsseldorf: Droste, 1994, 338.
“All we need is a peaceful”: Feliks Chuev, Sto sorok besed s Molotovym. Moscow: Terra, 1991, 332–334; Izvestia, 12/23/2003.
Beria wanted to negotiate: Vladislav M. Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996, 159–160; Andrei Gromyko, Memories. London: Hutchinson, 1989, 316.
The post-Stalin collective leadership: Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall, 24; “Memorandum, V. Chuikov, P. Iudin, L. Il’ichev to G. M. Malenkov, 18 May 1953, Secret,” retrieved from Christian F. Ostermann, “‘This Is Not a Politburo, but a Madhouse’—The Post-Stalin Succession Struggle, Soviet Deutschlandpolitik and the SED: New Evidence from Russian, German, and Hungarian Archives,” CWIHP-B, No. 10 (1998), 74–78.
At the party plenary: “Postanovlenie plenuma TsK KPSS o prestupnykh antipartiinykh i antigosudarstvennykh deistviiakh Beriia,” in “Delo Beriia,” Plenum TsK KPSS Iiuli 1953 goda, Stenograficheskii Otchet, 203, 304.
In the first days following Khrushchev’s: FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. VIII, Berlin Crisis, 1958–1959, Thompson cables to Washington on November 11 and 14, 1958, 47–48, 62; and Eisenhower—Herter phone conversation of November 28, 1958, p. 114.
“West Berlin has turned”: Oleg Grinevskii, “Berlinskkii krizis 1958–1959.” Zvezda, no. 2 (1996), 127.
Khrushchev’s son Sergei: Sergei N. Khrushchev, Nikita S. Khrushchev: Krizisy i Rakety. Vzgliad Iznutri. Moscow: Novosti, vol. 1, 1994, 416.
In answer to similar doubts: Oleg Troyanovsky, Cherez godi i rasstoiania: Istoriia Odnoi Semyi. Moscow: Vagrius, 1997, 211–213.
Giving him only a half hour’s: Hubert Horatio Humphrey Papers. Trip Files, Russian, in Senatorial Files, 1949–1964, Box 703, Minnesota Historical Society, Minneapolis, MN; FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. VIII, Berlin Crisis, 1958–1959, 149–153; JFKL, Memorandum of conversation (Memcon) between Sen. Humphrey and Acting Secretary of State Christian Herter, December 8, 1958, Box 126; Hubert H. Humphrey, “Eight Hours with Khrushchev,” Life, January 12, 1959, 80–91.
To show off his knowledge: FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. VIII, Berlin Crisis, 1958–1959, 149–153.
“somebody w
ho has risen”: Humphrey, “Eight Hours with Khrushchev,” 82.
In recounting his meeting: Quoted in Department of State, Central Files, 762.00/12-358.
Eisenhower responded to Khrushchev’s: Christian Bremen, Die Eisenhower-Administration und die zweite Berlin-Krise 1958–1961. Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommision zu Berlin, Bd. 95, Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1998, 383–386.
Khrushchev congratulated himself: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 416, quoting Sergei N. Khrushchev, Krizisy i Rakety, 442–443; Troyanovsky, Cherez godi, 218.
For that reason, Khrushchev’s considerations: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 421; Nikita S. Khrushchev, “Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva,” Voprosy Istorii, no. 4 (1993), 36.
“the capitalists never missed”: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974, 372.
Disregarding the advice of his pilot: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 372. Sergei N. Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000, 328–330; Fred Kaplan, 1959: The Year Everything Changed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2009, 107.
“From a ravaged, backward, illiterate Russia”: Nikita S. Khrushchev, “Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva,” Voprosy Istorii, no. 4 (1993), 38–39.
To Khrushchev’s relief and delight: Morton Schwartz, The Foreign Policy of the USSR: Domestic Factors. Encino, CA: Dickenson, 1975, 89; Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 377.
“We do not contemplate”: JFKL, Memcon, USSR–Vienna Meeting, Background Documents, 1953–1961, September 15, 1959, Box 126.
For his part, Eisenhower called: Jean Edward Smith, The Defense of Berlin. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963, 212; Gelb, The Berlin Wall, 43.
His trip had nearly ended: Los Angeles Times, September 20, 1959, p. 1.
The climactic Camp David meeting: FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. IX, Berlin Crisis, 1959–1960, 35–53; vol. X, Part I, Eastern Europe, Soviet Union, Cyprus, Doc. 129–136 (132), 459–485; Beschloss, Mayday, 206–215.
The following morning, Khrushchev agreed: Fursenko, Khrushchev’s Cold War, 238; JFKL, Eisenhower and Khrushchev meetings, September 26–27, 1959. USSR–Vienna Meeting, Background Documents 1953–1961, Box 4, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
Initially, Khrushchev celebrated the incident: Sergei N. Khrushchev, Creation of a Superpower, 365–367.
Years later, Khrushchev would concede: Dr. A. McGhee Harvey, “A Conversation with Khrushchev: The Beginning of His Fall from Power,” Life, December 18, 1970, 48B.
Eisenhower removed Khrushchev’s: FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. X, Part I, Eastern Europe Region, Soviet Union, Cyprus, Doc. 82, Memo of Conference with President Eisenhower, July 8, 1959.
In what would be the one and only session: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 465, 495, quotes Pravda, May 19, 1960; Beschloss, Mayday, 299; A. Merriman Smith, A President’s Odyssey. New York: Harper, 1961, 199; Thomas P. Whitney, ed., Khrushchev Speaks—Selected Speeches, Articles, and Press Conferences, 1949–1961. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963, 389–390.
It concerned the sad story: Stanislaw Gaevsk, “Kak Nikita Sergeyevich vstrech v verkhak sorval.” Kievski Novosi, no. 1 (1993).
For all his theatrics, however, Khrushchev: Beschloss, Mayday, 305; Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, 282; Beschloss, Crisis Years, 31–32.
To the surprise of U.S. diplomats: Pravda, May 21, 1960, 1–2; “Text of the Address by Khrushchev in East Berlin,” New York Times, 05/20/1960; “Mr. K. Quiet in East Berlin,” Christian Science Monitor, May 20, 1960; “Back Home in Berlin, Mr. K. Smiles Again,” New York Times, 05/20/1960.
Instead of flying to America: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 472; Sergei N. Khrushchev, Creation of a Superpower, 408–409; Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 463.
When one of the Soviet sailors: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 474; Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 467.
“So, another dirty trick”: Shevchenko, Breaking with Moscow, 105–106.
The only saving grace: Shevchenko, Breaking with Moscow, 96–101; Martin Ebon, The Andropov File: The Life and Ideas of Yuri V. Andropov, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983, 26; Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 474.
None of that dampened: Aleksei I. Adzhubei, Krushenie illiuzii. Moscow: Interbuk, 1991, 235; Nikolai Zakharov, “Kak Khrushceve Ameriku Pokarial,” in Argumenty I Fakty, no. 52 (2004), 12; Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 471.
By September 26, only a week into: New York Times, 09/26/1960.
Khrushchev was determined to use: Robert Divine, Blowing on the Wind: The Nuclear Test Ban Debate, 1954–1960. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978, 100; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President, vol. 2. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984, 349–350; Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library (DDEL). Eisenhower–Bulganin, 10/21/1956.
In public, Khrushchev hedged: Shevchenko, Breaking with Moscow, 108.
But behind the scenes: John Bartlow Martin, Adlai Stevenson and the World: The Life of Adlai E. Stevenson. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1977, 471–475.
Stevenson responded that: Adlai E. Stevenson Papers. Memorandum (Memo) 01/16/1960: Tucker conversation; Martin, Adlai Stevenson, 471–475.
Republican Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 489–490.
By autumn, the Eisenhower administration: Beschloss, Crisis Years, 35; DDEL, Lodge–Christian Herter, 02/09/1960; Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 489–491; Richard Nixon Papers, Nixon tel. note 02/27/1960.
“We thought we would have more hope”: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 489.
Though Kennedy’s campaign rhetoric: Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, 340; Soviet Central Committee Archive (TsKhSD), Gromyko to N.S. Khrushchev, August 3, 1960, Folio 5, List 30, File 335, 92–108; reproduced in CWIHP-B, No. 4 (1994), 65–67.
The candidates continued to shower attention: New York Times, 09/27/1960.
Kennedy predicted that the next president: New York Times, 10/07/1960.
Yet before a national television audience: Washington Post, 10/08/1960.
During their third debate: JFKL, “Face-to-Face, Nixon-Kennedy” Vice President Richard M. Nixon and Senator John F. Kennedy Third Joint Television-Radio Broadcast, October 13, 1960: http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/JFK+Pre-Pres/1960/Third+Presidential+Debate+101360.htm; The American Presidency Project: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu; Smith, The Defense of Berlin, 229.
Behind the scenes: Donald S. Zagoria, The Sino-Soviet Conflict 1956–1961. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1962, 245–251; Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 254–255.
The Soviet embassy in Beijing: Vladislav M. Zubok, “Khrushchev and the Berlin Crisis 1958–1962),” CWIHP Working Paper No. 6, May 1993, 17.
Mao opposed Khrushchev’s foreign policy: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970, 461–479; Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 245–248.
“Think of it”: Beschloss, Crisis Years, 42.
Mao had shocked Khrushchev: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 254–255; Nikita S. Khrushchev, Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, ed. Sergei Khrushchev. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 2004–2007, vol. 3, 458.
“They understood the implications”: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 471.
On the same trip: Zhisui Li and Anne F. Thurston, eds., The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Mao’s Personal Physician. New York, 1994, 261; Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 391–392.
“The interp
reter is translating”: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 391–392; Sergei N. Khrushchev, Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, vol. 3, 458; Mikhail Romm, Ustnye rasskazy. Moscow: Kinotsentr, 1991, 154.
Just two days before the gathering: Edward Crankshaw, The New Cold War: Moscow v. Pekin. Harmondsworth, England, and Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1963/1970, 97–105; Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 470.
He attacked the absent Mao: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 471; Crankshaw, New Cold War, 107.
“Within the short span”: Chinese Communist Party Central Committee letter of February 29, 1964 to Soviet Central Committee, excerpted in John Gittings, ed., Survey of the Sino-Soviet Dispute: A Commentary and Extracts from Recent Polemics, 1963–1967. London and New York: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1968, 130–131, 139; Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story. New York: Alfred A. Knopf/Doubleday, 2005, 456.
Khrushchev called Mao: Beschloss, Crisis Years, 42–43; Beschloss, Mayday, 323–325; Chang, Mao, 456; David Floyd, Mao Against Khrushchev—A Short History of the Sino-Soviet Conflict. New York: Praeger, 1964, 280; New York Times, 12/02/1960; New York Times, 02/12/1961.
Deng attacked the Soviet leader’s: Crankshaw, New Cold War, 131–133; Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 475–477.
Mao’s interpreter Yan Mingfu: Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, 472.
Ulbricht sat forward and erect: Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives (AVP-RF), Record of Meeting of Comrade N.S. Khrushchev with Comrade W. Ulbricht, 30 November 1960, Fond 0742, Opis 6, Por 4, Papka 43, Secret, in Hope Harrison, “Ulbricht and the Concrete ‘Rose’: New Archival Evidence on the Dynamics of Soviet–East German Relations and the Berlin Crisis, 1958–61,” CWIHP Working Paper No. 5, May 1993, 68–78, Papers, Appendices.
The Soviet ambassador in East Berlin: Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall, 147: TsKhSD, Pervukhin, “Otchet o rabote Posol’stva SSR. V GDR za 1960 god,” 15.12.60, R, 8948, Fond 5, Opis 49, D. 287, 85; AVP-RF, Pervukin Report to Gromyko, October 19, 1960, “K voprosu o razyryve zapadnoi Germaniei soglasheniia o vnutrigermanskoi gorgovle s GDR,” Fond 5, Papka 40, D. 40, 3.
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