16. Al-Muqaddasi and Islamic Jerusalem under the Fatimids: quotations are from Muqaddasi—on beauty of Dome, Haram and al-Aqsa 41–68; on mystics and cheeses 67–9; Jews and Christians 75–7; on Day of Judgement, filthy baths, water 34–7. Day of Judgement and arrival of Mahdi: Ibn Khaldun 257–8. Fatimid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 119. A banana at the Dome: Goitein, “Jerusalem” 190 quotes Ibn Asakir.
17. Al-Hakim: Christian mother—William of Tyre 1.65–7. Sanders, CHE 1.152. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 185. Islamic seeking of knowledge: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.51. Runciman 1.35–6. Mann 1.33–41. On al-Khidr shrine see William Dalrymple, From Holy Mountain 339–44. Jaber el-Atrache, “Divinity of al-Hakim,” Lebanon Through Writers’ Eyes (eds.) T. J. Gorton and A. F. Gorton, 170–1.
18. Holy Fire: Qalanisi 65–7. Martin Gilbert, Rebirth of a City 160. Shudder with horror—Mujir 67–8. Holy Fire, descriptions in Peters, Jerusalem 262, including first mention AD 870 of ritual in Bernard Itinerary 263. Christian pilgrims, including Fulk: David C. Douglas, William the Conqueror 35–7. Runciman 1.43–9.
19. Hakim, Holy Sepulchre and Death: Gilbert Rebirth of a City 160. Holy Fire: Mujir 67–8. Holy Fire, descriptions in Peters, Jerusalem 262, including first mention AD 870 of ritual in Bernard Itinerary 263. Christian pilgrims: Runciman 1.43–9. Fatimid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Qalanisi 65–7. Yahya ibn Said quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 260; Jewish persecutions, loss of subsidy 276. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 132. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 185–6. Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.1–5, 18, 34, 71. On Sweyn, Duke Robert of Normandy: Douglas, William Conqueror 35–7: Tuchman 3–4. “Divinity of Hakim,” Lebanon 170–1.
20. Al-Zahir and al-Mustansir, rebuilding of Holy Sepulchre, walls, Christian Quarter: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Al-Zahir: William of Tyre 1.67–71; walls, Amalfitian hospice, Quarter 1.80–1; area of Muristan rebuilt 2.240–5. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 188. Rebuilding: Peters, Jerusalem 267; walls of Jerusalem and protection of Christian Patriarchs’ Quarter—Yahya quoted in Peters, Jerusalem. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 132–3.
Christian pilgrimage, al-Mustansir, Jewish viziers: Stillman, CHE 1.206–7. Norman/Royal/aristocratic pilgrims: Douglas, William Conqueror 35–7. German pilgrimage led by Arnold Bishop of Bamberg and bloodbath outside Jerusalem 1064: Peters, Jerusalem 253. Bloodbath: see Florence of Worcester, Chronicle. Age of pilgrims: Runciman 143–9. Christopher Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (henceforth Tyerman) 43. Dangers and persecution of Christian pilgrims: William of Tyre 1.71 and 81. Tortures and burst bowels, Urban II quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 251; Jews, al-Zahir security 277. Jewish pilgrimage and travel: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.55–61. Muslim pilgrimage, Nasir-i-Khusrau: all quotations are from Nasir-i-Khusrau, Diary of a Journey Through Syria and Palestine; on Nasir, Grabar, Shape of the Holy 137–8, 145–53. Holiness of Jerusalem: Hasson, Cathedra 1.177–83. Sanctity: Ibn Khaldun 269. Consecration of haj from Jerusalem: Duri in Asali, 118. Tustari grand viziers: Mann 1.74–6. Solomon ben Yehuda, gaon of Jerusalem 1025–51—things “so bad like of which didn’t occur since the Jews returned”/on fall of Tustari; Jerusalem threatened by Arab rebels 1024–9; tolerance of al-Zahir of Jews and Karaites: Mann 1.134–6. Gaon and Nasi Daniel ben Azarya in Jerusalem eleven years 1051–62 succeeded as gaon by Elijah Hakkohen—but fled Jerusalem to Tyre: Mann 1.178–80; Arab revolt of Hassan of Banu Jarrah 1.158–71. Treaty with Byzantines: Runciman 1.35–7.
21. Seljuks: Ibn Khaldun 252. Atsiz takes Jerusalem, revolt and storming; Tutush and Ortuqids: Solomon ben Joseph Ha-Kohen, “The Turkoman Defeat at Cairo,” American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures January 1906. Hiyari in Azali, Jerusalem 135–7. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 186. Joshua Prawer, Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 7–9. Turkish military tactics: Norman Housley, Fighting for the Cross: Crusading to the Holy Land 111–14. Ortuq and arrow: Runciman 1.76; Seljuks 1.59. Muslim revival including visit of al-Ghazali and Ibn al-Arabi: Mustafa A. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 130–7. Dangers and persecution of Christian pilgrims: William of Tyre 1.71. Tortures, Urban II: Peters, Jerusalem 251; Jews flee to Haifa then Tyre 277. Ruins of Jerusalem sites: Halevi, Selected Poems of Judah Halevi, ed. H. Brody 3–7. Maimonides, Code 28–30. Peters, Jerusalem 276–9. Muslims: Ghazali quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 279–80 and 409; Mujir 66 and 140; Nusseibeh, Country 126–7. Popular history of the Seljuks: John Freely, Storm on Horseback: Seljuk Warriors of Turkey 45–64.
PART FIVE: CRUSADE
1. Crusade, Godfrey, taking of Jerusalem. This account of the Crusades is based on the essential classics Steven Runciman, The Crusades; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A Short History; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade; Joshua Prawer, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem; Denys Pringle, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus (henceforth Pringle); the works of Benjamin Z. Kedar; and the excellent new books Christopher Tyerman, God’s War; Jonathan Phillips, Holy Warriors; and Thomas Asbridge, The Crusades; along with primary Christian sources William of Tyre, Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum and Raymond d’Aguilers, and Muslim sources Ibn al-Athir, and later Ibn Qalanisi and Usama bin Munqidh; on warfare, Norman Housley, Fighting for the Cross; on life in Jerusalem, Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades.
Raymond and Gesta are quoted in August C. Krey, The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants 242–62; al-Athir and al-Qalanisi are quoted, unless otherwise sourced, in Francesco Gabrieli, Arab Historians of the Crusades (henceforth Gabrieli). Storming: al-Athir, Gabrieli 10–11. Tyerman 109–12. Three thousand dead, smaller massacre: Benjamin Z. Kedar, “The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in Western Historiography of the Crusades,” in Crusades 3 (2004) 15–75. Phillips, Warriors 24; Asbridge, Crusades 90–104. Three thousand killed on Haram and women killed in Dome of Chains: Ibn al-Arabi quoted in Benjamin Z. Kedar and Denys Pringle, “1099–1187: The Lord’s Temple (Templum Domini) and Solomon’s Palace (Palatium Salomonis),” in Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 15–33. On Jerusalem image and Holy War: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 26 and 35–8; massacre 217–19. The Princes of the Crusade: Tyerman 116–25; Crusader psychopaths 87. Fragmentation of Arabs and Islamic city states—see William of Tyre and al-Athir quoted in Tyerman 343 and Grabar, Shape of the Holy 18. Runciman 1.280–5. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 137–40.
On Crusader buildings of Jerusalem, thanks to Professor Dan Bahat who gave the author a Crusader tour. On Arnulf morals: B. Z. Kedar, “Heraclius,” in B. Z. Kedar, H. E. Mayer and R. C. Smail (eds.), Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem 182. B. Z. Kedar, “A Commentary on the Book of Isaiah Ransomed from the Crusaders,” in Cathedra 2.320. OJ 281. Storming and ransoming of Jews: Prawer, Jews in the Latin Kingdom 19–40. On Jews: Mann 198–201. William of Tyre 1.379–413. The campaign: Tyerman 124–53; storming 155–64; few knights 178. Massacre: al-Athir in Gabrieli 10–11. Storming: Gesta Francorum 86–91. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem 1.xxiv and xxxiii and 2.vi. up to bridle reins in blood—quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 285. City population statistics: Tyerman 2–3. Turkish tactics: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 111–14; Frankish tactics 118–22.
2. Baldwin I. This portrait is based on William of Tyre 1.416–17; Fulcher, History; Tyerman 200–7; Runciman 1.314–15 and 2.104, including Baldwin’s wives and Adelaide’s arrival in Jerusalem and Sigurd visit 92–3. “Saga of Sigurd” quoted in Wright, Early Travellers 50–62.
Building—use of Citadel, spolia from al-Aqsa for Sepulchre: Boas, Jerusalem 73–80. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, “1099–1187: The Lord’s Temple (Templum Domini) and Solomon’s Palace (Palatium Salomonis),” Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Holy Sepulchre: Charles Couasnon, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem 19–20. Kroyanker 40–3. N. Kenaan, “Sculptured Lintels of the Crusader Church of the Holy Sepulchre,” in Cathedra 2.325. Runciman 3.370–2. The traditions and calendar, pilgrims: Tyerman 34
1. Holy Fire—Daniel the Abbott quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 263–5; methesep and administration of city 301. Calendar and rituals: Boas, Jerusalem 30–2; chief political posts and courts 21–5; coronation 32–5; Golden Gate, on possible Crusader domes 63–4, citing Pringle; Crusader graves on Temple Mount 182; John of Wurzburg says “illustrious” people buried near Golden Gate, Crusader style and workshop on Temple Mount 191–8. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 97–102 on coronations; True Cross 32–3; crown 94–125. On True Cross: Imad quoted in Grabar, Shape of the Holy 136. James Fleming, Biblical Archaeology Review, January–February 1969, 30. Shanks 84–5. Red tent of king: Runciman 2.458–9; Crusader style 3.368–83. Style and reuse of Herodian stones, citadel and towers: Kroyanker 4, 37–43.
3. Baldwin II: Tyerman 206–8. Gift for kingship: al-Qalanisi, Gabrieli 40. Jerusalem: Bahat, Atlas 90–101. Royal palaces, palace close to Sepulchre: Boas, Jerusalem 77–80. Palace: Arnald von Harf quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 355.
On the Orders, this is based on Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Knights of St. John in Jerusalem and Cyprus 1050–1310; Piers Paul Read, The Templars; Michael Haag, The Templars: History and Myth; Boas, Jerusalem; and Prawer, Latin Kingdom. Templar Temple Mount: Theodorich, Description of the Holy Places 30–2. Templar traditions, rules: Anonymous Pilgrim quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 323. Military organization, knights, Turcopoles: Tyerman 220, 228 and orders 169. Orders: Boas, Jerusalem 26–30; Templar Temple Mount, baths 142–60; stables quoting John of Wurzburg and Theodorich (10,000 horses) 163; Hospitallers 156–9. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 252–79. Orders: Runciman 2.312–14. Crusaders on Temple Mount: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock 163. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. On Temple Mount: Church on Antonia site, Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Survey 204–5; Templar Hall on south-west corner of Temple Mount 260–1; Templar Augustinian Canons north of Dome. Single gate with access to Solomon’s Stables: Archaeological Park 31. On Armenian settlement and rebuilding of St. James’s Cathedral after 1141: Dorfmann-Lazarev, “Historical Itinerary of the Armenian People in Light of its Biblical Memory.”
4. Fulk and Melisende, based on William of Tyre 2.50–93 and 135; character of Melisende 2.283. Tyerman 207–9. Runciman 2.178, 233, 190. Coronation of Jerusalem kings: Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Old French Continuation of William of Tyre and Sources in Translation (henceforth Continuation) 15. Calendar and rituals: Boas, Jerusalem 30–2; chief political posts 21–5; coronation 32–5. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 97–102 on coronations.
Zangi and Edessa: al-Athir, Gabrieli 41–3 and 50–1; character and death 53–5; Qalinisi 44–50; Usamah on life in Zangi army, Zangi king of amirs 38 and 169–71. Zangi: Phillips, Warriors 75–6; Ibn Jubayr quoted on wedding 47; coronation 56–8; penalties for adultery 60–1; psalter as Fulk’s gift 69–71; Holy Sepulchre 103. Zangi, character: Asbridge, Crusades 225–7.
5. Usamah bin Munqidh, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades (henceforth Usamah [scholar, cavalier, Muslim] 26; Zangi king of amirs 38; brutality of amirs 169–71; hunting with Zangi 202–3; loss of library 44; importance of Islam and jihad, father 63–4 and 202; Eastern doctors 66; Franks’ medicine 145–6; meetings with Fulk 76–7; goshawk 205–6; pilgrimage to Jerusalem 250; buying hostages 93; meeting Baldwin II 94; father cuts arm off servant 129; Frankish converts to Islam 142–3; nature of Franks’ invitation to Europe 144; at Temple 147–8; women and pubic shaving 148–50; law 151–2; Franks acclimatized to East 153; small things and death 156; victory and God 160.
Description of markets and streets: condition of the city of Jerusalem 1187 quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 298–303. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Commerce: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 408–9. On Syrian doctors, see William of Tyre on death of Baldwin III and Amaury. Population and adoption of Eastern customs: Fulcher, History 2.vi, 6–9 and 3.xxxvii. Different peoples in Jerusalem: anonymous pilgrim in Peters, Jerusalem 307–8. Ali al-Harawi, on pictures in Dome: Peters, Jerusalem 313–18. Templars ride out to practise daily: Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela 20–3; see also Wright, Early Travellers. Jerusalem in 1165, “people of all tongues,” Jews pray at Golden Gate: Benjamin of Tudela quoted in Wright 83–6. Jerusalem 1103: Saewulf quoted in Wright, Early Travellers 31–9. On festivals, City of Jerusalem guide and al-Harawi: Peters Jerusalem, 302–18.
On Melisende building, settlement, Armenians under Crusades: Kevork Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 18–23 and 25–8. On Armenian settlement of refugees—thanks to George Hintlian. Armenian Quarter develops: Boas, Jerusalem 39. Crusader plans for Bab al-Silsila St. Giles Church: author’s visit to Temple Tunnels, guided by Dan Bahat. Crusader churches on Bab al-Silsila: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 443 and on site of Antonia 204–5. On Melisende Fulk regime: Tyerman 206–11. Runciman 2.233. On building: Grabar, Dome of Rock grille 167. On churches: see Pringle. Building—use of Citadel, spolia from al-Aqsa for Sepulchre: Boas, Jerusalem 73–80. Kedar and Pringle, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Holy Sepulchre: Couasnon, Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem 19–20. Kroyanker 40–3. Kenaan, “Sculptured Lintels of the Crusader Church of the Holy Sepulchre,” in Cathedra 2.325.
Burial rites and shrines as theatre: Jonathan Riley-Smith, “The Death and Burial of Latin Christian Pilgrims to Jerusalem and Acre, 1099–1291,” Crusades 7 (2008): burial sites, holy places as stage-sets, including quote from Riley-Smith, on burial of Beckett’s murderers. Death in Jerusalem/Mamilla: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 184. Boas, Jerusalem 181–7, including Aceldama and burial on Temple Mount of Frederick, Advocate of Regensburg, died 1148; Conrad Schick found bones near Golden Gate. Archery practice, Boas, Jerusalem 163.
Psalter, arts: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 416–68. Runciman 3.383. See also J. Folda, Crusader Art: The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land, 1099–1291. Population and dress of military orders and Jerusalemites: Boas, 26–30 and 35–40. Tavern with chains: conversations with Dan Bahat. Life in Jerusalem, baths, Venetian and Genoese streets, poulains: Runciman 2.291–3.
Life and luxury, turbans, furs, burnous, baths, pork, Ibelin Beirut palace: Tyerman 235–40. Maps and vision of Jerusalem: fourteen maps of Frankish Jerusalem, eleven of them round, usually with the cartographic convention of the cross within a circle on the streets: Boas, Jerusalem 39 in royal palace on Cambrai map. Royal palace: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 110–11.
Sex and women on Crusade: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 174–7. Whores in Outremer—Imad al-Din quoted in Gabrieli 204–5. Muslims: Ali al-Harawi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 381. Jews—visit of Judah Halevy: Brenner 88–90. Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 144. Selected Poems of Judah Halevi, trans. Nina Salaman; also see Peters, Jerusalem 278.
Runciman 3.370–2. The traditions and calendar, pilgrims: Tyerman 341. Holy Fire—Daniel the Abbott quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 263–5, methesep and administration of city 301. Calendar and rituals: Boas, 30–2; 21–5; 32–5. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 97–102; True Cross 32–3; crown: 94–125. On True Cross: Imad quoted in Grabar, Shape of the Holy 136.
Golden Gate: Boas, 63–4; Crusader graves 182; Temple Mount 191–8. J. Fleming, Biblical Archaeology Review January–February 1969, 30. Shanks 84–5. Red tent of king: Runciman 2.458–9; Crusader style 3.368–83. Style and reuse of Herodian stones: Kroyanker 4, 37–43. Dome of Rock: Ali al-Harawi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 318.
Zangi, character, deathbed witness, Asbridge, Crusades 225–7. Hamilton A. R. Gibb, “Zengi and the Fall of Edessa,” in M. W. Baldwin (ed.), The First Hundred Years, vol. 1 of K. M. Setton (ed. in chief), A History of the Crusades 449–63.
6. Second Crusade: Qalinisi quoted in Gabrieli 56–60; al-Athir 59–62. William of Tyre: on Eleanor and Raymond 2.180–1; on debacle of Damascus 2.182–96. Zangi’s character, death: Asbridge, Crusades 225–7. Gibb, “Zengi and the Fall of Edessa,” in Baldwin, First Hundred Years 449–63.
The most recent account is Jonathan Phillips, The Second Crusade
207–27. On Louis and Eleanor: Ralph V. Turner, Eleanor of Aquitaine 70–98. Tyerman 329–37. Fourteen maps of Frankish Jerusalem, Boas, Jerusalem 39. Royal palace: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 110–11. On Church of Holy Sepulchre, this account and analysis is closely based on Riley-Smith, “Death and Burial of Latin Christian Pilgrims to Jerusalem and Acre, 1099–1291,” Crusades 7 (2008); Pringle; Folda, Crusader Art, Couasnon, Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem 19–20; Kroyanker 40–3; Kenaan, Cathedra 2.325; Boas, Jerusalem 73–80; Runciman 3.370–2.
7. Baldwin III: character, William of Tyre 2.137–9; the account of his reign is based on 2.139–292; death and grief 2.292–4. Tyerman 206–8. Runciman 2.3.334, 2.242, 2.361–3; Ortuqids attack 2.337; Ascalon 2.337–58. Nur al-Din and Sunni revival: Qalinisi 64–8. Tyerman 268–73. Asbridge, Crusades 229–33. Nur al-Din polo: Phillips, Warriors 110. Hamilton A. R. Gibb, “The Career of Nur-ad-Din,” in Baldwin, First Hundred Years 513–27. On Andronicus: Bernard Hamilton, The Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (henceforth Leper) 173–4.
8. Amaury and Agnes, sleaziness of Jerusalem politics: Leper 26–32. Tyerman 208–10. Amaury builds Royal Palace: Boas, Jerusalem 82. On Egyptian strategy/negotiations with Assassins: Leper 63–75. Five Egyptian invasions: Tyerman 347–58; Syrian doctors 212. Runciman 2.262–93; death of kings 2.398–400. Overmighty military orders—e.g. Hospitallers vs. patriarch, William of Tyre 2.240–5; Templar disobedience to Amaury. Agnes married Reynard of Marash; engaged to Hugh of Ibelin; married Prince Amaury then Hugh of Ibelin then Reynard of Sidon, who divorced her; lovers allegedly included Amaury of Lusignan and Heraclius the Patiarch: Runciman 2.362–3, 407.
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