by Ying-shih Yü
7. SJ (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1972), 10.3101. All dynastic histories used in this study are from
this punctuated edition. Burton Watson, trans., Rec ords of the Grand Historian of China
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 2:415.
8. SJ, 10.3100; Watson, Rec ords, 2:414.
9. Legge, Tso Chuen, 589.
10.
Adam Smith, An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed. Edwin
Cannan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 1:129.
11. SJ, 10.3256; Nancy Lee Swann, trans., Food and Money in Ancient China (Prince ton:
Prince ton University Press, 1950), 426–427.
12.
SJ, 10.3258–3259; Swann, Food and Money, 428–429.
13. SJ, 10.3259; Watson, Rec ords, 11:483.
14.
Robert L. Heilbroner, The Worldly Phi los o phers, 6th ed. (New York: Touchstone Books,
1992).
15. Max Weber, Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press, 1978), 1:636.
16.
SJ, 8.2448.
17. SJ, 7.2362. See also Zhanguoce
, WYWK, juan 11: 1.93–94.
18.
Chen Qiyou
, Hanfeizi jishi
(Shanghai: Renmin, 1974), 2:772–773.
19. Ibid., 2.800. See the old commentary cited on p. 803.
20. SJ, 8.2505–2509; Zhanguoce, juan 7: 1.61–63.
21. See Qian Mu
, XianQin zhuzi xinian
, 2nd ed. (Hong Kong: HKU
Press, 1956), 2:485–489; 491–493.
22. Hanfeizi jishi, 2.1075–1076; En glish translation by Burton Watson, Han Fei Tzu, Basic
Writings (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 116.
23. Mawangdui Hanmu boshu zhengli xiaozu
, Zhanguo congheng
jia shu
(Beijing: Wenwu, 1976), 91. See also note 11 on p. 93.
24. Ibid., 115.
25. SJ, 10.3258.
26. D. C. Lau, Confucius: The Analects (Harmonds worth: Penguin, 1979), 11.19.
27. See Liu Baonan
, Analects zhengyi,
, WYWK, 3.37–38.
28. Yili
, juan 19: 7a, Shisan jing zhushu
edition (Nanchang, 1815). See the
annotation by Hu Peihui
in Yili zhengyi
, WYWK, 7.40–41.
29. Hanfeizi jishi, 2.623.
30. Zhouli zhengyi, juan 8: 8.4.
31. Mencius, trans. D. C. Lau (New York: Penguin, 1970), 2B.10.
32. Heilbroner, Worldly Phi los o phers, 156.
33.
A. C. Graham, Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science (Hong Kong: CUHK Press, 1978),
397. For further discussion, see Hu Jichuang
, Zhongguo jingji sixiangshi
(Shanghai: Renmin, 1962), 1:129–134, and Liu Cunren
, “Mojing jianyi”
, in his Hefeng Tang wenji
(Shanghai: Guji, 1991), 1:118–120.
34. Sun Yirang, Mozi jiangu
, WYWK, 3:31.
35.
The Book of Lieh- tzu: A Classic of the Tao, trans. A. C. Graham (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1990), 179.
busine s s c ul t ur e a nd c h ine s e t r adi t ions 267
36. Lao Tzu, Dao Teh Ching, trans. John C. H. Wu (Boston: Shambhala, 1989), chap. 79,
p. 161.
37.
Wang Xianqian
, Zhuangzi jijie
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1954), 11.37–38;
Burton Watson, trans., The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu (New York: Columbia Univer-
sity Press, 1968), 255.
38. For details, see Zhouli zhengyi, juan 27: 7.92–94.
39. Laozi Daodejing, SBCK, hsia: 12a.
40. SJ, 7.2140.
41.
John Knoblock, Xunzi: A Translation and Study of the Complete Works (Stanford, Calif.:
Stanford University Press, 1990), 2:102.
42. Zhu Shiche
, Shangjun shu jiegu dingben
(Hong Kong: Zhong-
hua, 1974), 82–83.
43. Hanfeizi jishi, 11.1078; Watson, Han Fei Tzu, 17.
44. Luo Genze
, “Gudai jingjixue zhong zhi bennong moshang xueshuo”
, in Guanzi tanyuan
(Shanghai: Zhonghua, 1931),
234–238.
45. Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th– 18th Century, vol. 2, The Wheels of Commerce, trans. Sian Renolds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 588–589.
46. M. M. Postan, E. E. Rich, and Edward Miller, eds., Cambridge Economic History of
Eu rope (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963), 3:46–47.
47. Hanfeizi jishi, 11.1075; Watson, Han Fei Tzu, 116.
48. Swann, Food and Money, 231.
49. Xu Guangqi
, Nongzheng quanshu
(Shanghai: Guji, 1979), 1:65.
50. Swann, Food and Money, 164–166.
51. Ying- shih Yü, Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-
Barbarian Economic Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 218.
52. Mao Qiling
, Xihe wenji
, WYWK, 14:2204; Chen Hongmo
, Jishi
jiwen
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1985), 69. Chen Hongmo (1474–1555) was a con tem-
porary of the Zhengde Emperor.
53.
HHS, 2:339 and 342.
54. See Zheng Kecheng
, Mingdai zhengzheng tanyuan
(Tianjin: Guji,
1988), 274–283.
55. Richard B. Mather, trans., Shih- shuo hsin- yü: A New Account of Tales of the World (Min-
neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976), 455–456. See also Jinshu, 4:1234.
56. Liangshu,
, 2:384.
57.
Jinshu
, 8:2437–2438.
58. Studies of Tang- Song commerce and foreign trade are legion. However, works by
Quan Hansheng
, Kato Shigeshi
, and Shiba Yoshinobu
are
indispensable.
59. Denis Twitchett, “The T’ang Market System,” AM, n.s. 12, no. 2 (1966): 205–206.
60. For example, see Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 586–589.
61.
JTS, 9:2956. According to Sima Guang
, ZZTJ (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1956), this
event occurred in 700. See vol. 14, p. 6553.
268 busine s s c ul t ur e a nd c h ine s e t r adi t ions
62. E. G. Pulleyblank, The Background of the Rebellion of An Lushan (London: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1955), p. 41 and chap. 4, 134n7.
63. XTS, 20:6425, where it is also stated that Kang Qian’s son- in- law was a follower of An
Lushan.
64. Chen Yinke xiansheng lunji
(Taipei: Academia Sinica, 1971), 126–138.
65. Ibid., 129 citing the biography of An Lushan in XTS, 20:6414.
66. XTS, 20:6414; ZZTJ, 15:6905.
67. ZZTJ, 15:7015.
68. Tao Xisheng
and Ju Qingyuan
, Tangdai caizheng shi
(Chang-
sha: Shangwu, 1940), 99; Denis Twitchett, Financial Administration Under the Tang
Dynasty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963), 35 and 247n109.
69. Chen Yinke, Yuan Bai shi jianzheng gao
(Beijing: Wenxue guji, 1955),
240–246.
70. ZZTJ, 16:7287–7288; XTS, 19:6121–6122.
71.
JTS, 16:5370.
72. ZZTJ, 17:8005.
73. Lien- sheng Yang, “Government Control of Urban Merchants in Traditional China,” in
his Sinological Studies and Reviews (Taipei: Shihuo, 1982), 30–31.
74. Hong Mai
, Yijian zhi
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1981), 4:1562–1563.
75. Ibid., 1:98.
76. Ibid., 1:97–98.
77. Ibid., 2:670.
78. Quoted in Quan Hansheng, “Bei Song Bianliang de shuchuru maoyi”
, in his Zhongguo jingji shi luncong
(Hong Kong: New Asia Insti-
tute, 1972), 1:120.
79. Quan Hansheng, “Songdai guanli de siying shangye”
, in his
Zhongguo jing ji shi yanjiu
(Hong Kong: New Asia Institute, 1976),
2:1–74.
80. Su Che
, Luancheng ji
, SBCK, juan 21: 228.
81.
Wang Pizhi
, Shengshui yantan lu
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1981), 30.
82. Yijian zhi, 2, 840.
83. See Marc Bloch, Feudal Society, trans. L. A. Manyon (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1961), 322.
84. Boshi Changqing ji
, SBCK, juan 28: 143.
85. Xiang Da
, Tangdai Chang-an yu Xiyu wenming
(Beijing: San-
lian, 1957), 34–40.
86. See the vari ous anecdotes collected in Ding Chuanjing
, Songren yishi huibian
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1981), 2, 465–466; 596; 612–613; 621–622.
87. Yuanshi Changqing ji
, SBCK, juan 51: 161.
88. See an edict dated 1044 cited in Quan Hansheng, Zhongguo jingji shi yanjiu, 2, 62.
89. See Lien- sheng Yang, “The Form of the Paper Note Hui- tzu of the Southern Sung,” in
his Studies in Chinese Institutional History (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1961), 216–223.
busine s s c ul t ur e a nd c h ine s e t r adi t ions 269
90. See, for examples, Zhang Xiumin
, Zhang Xiumin yinshua shi lunwen ji
(Beijing: Yinshua gongye, 1988), 84–95; 96–117; Zhang Xiumin, Zhongguo yins-
hua shi
(Shanghai: Renmin, 1989), 70–74; 78–79; 88–92.
91. Ye Mengde, Shilin yan yu
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1984), 116.
92. Ibid., 115.
93. Ming- sun Poon, “Books and Printing in Song China, 960–1279,” Ph.D. diss., University
of Chicago, 1979, 95 and 180, cited and further discussed in Susan Cherniack, “Book
Culture and Textual Transmission in Song China,” HJAS 34, no. 1 (June 1994), 43–45.
94. Cherniack, “Book Culture and Textual Transmission,” 79–80.
95. Shen Yao, Luofanlou wenji
, juan 24: 11b–12b, Wuxing congshu
edi-
tion (Beijing: Wenwu, 1987 [reprint]). I am grateful to Professor Charles Y. T. Kwong for
a draft translation of this passage.
96. Wang Daokun, Taihan ji
(hereafter THJ) (Nanjing, 1591), juan 35: 11b–16a.
97. For more examples of such networks of Huizhou merchants, see Fujii Hiroshi
,
“Shinan shōnin no kenkyū”
, Tōyō gakuhō
36, no. 3 (Decem-
ber 1953): 85–87.
98. Wu Weiye
, Meicun jiacang gao
, SBCK, juan 47: 207.
99. THJ, 35:14a– b.
100. Ming- Qing Huishang ziliao xuanbian
(hereafter MCHS), compiled
by Zhang Haipeng
and Wang Tingyuan
(Hefei: Huangshan, 1985),
296–297.
101. MCHS, 234. It is extremely revealing that in a late Ming popu lar handbook for mer-
chants, the successful businessman is also described as “in possession of extraordinary
qualities endowed by Heaven” as the dynastic founder and the top successful candidate
in metropolitan examinations. See Li Jinde
, Keshang yilan xingmi
(Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin, 1992), 312.
102. MCHS, 87. For more examples, see pp. 223 and 259.
103. MCHS, 216.
104. Ibid., 439.
105. THJ, 55:la. The same point is also repeated in 29:20b.
106. See Yü Ying- shih
, Zhongguo jinshi zongjiao lunli yu shangren jingshen
(Taipei: Lianjing, 1987), 150.
107. Ouyang Wenzhong Gong wenji
, SBCK, juan 63: 477–478.
108. Wang Yangming quanji
(Shanghai: Guji, 1992), vol. 1, juan 25: 940–941. I am
grateful to Professor Charles Y. T. Kwong for a draft translation of this passage.
109. Sang Yue, Sixuan ji
, juan 7: 1a– b, Ming edition in the Gest Oriental Library of
Prince ton University.
110. See Shigeta Atsushi
, Shindai shakai keizaishi kenkyū
(Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1975), 294–349.
111. Ping-ti
Ho,
Studies on the Population of China, 1368– 1953 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1959), 264.
112. Wen
Zhengming
, Futian ji
, SKQS (Taipei: Shangwu, 1984 [reprint]), juan
25: 415.
270 busine s s c ul t ur e a nd c h ine s e t r adi t ions
113. Han
Bangqi
, Yuanluo ji
, SKQS, juan 19: 4–5.
114. MCHS, 251.
115. MCHS, 74–75.
116. For a general description of the prosperity of the market economy in sixteenth- century
China, see Zhang Han
(1511–1593), Songchuang mengyu
(Beijing: Zhong-
hua, 1985), 80–87; Timothy Brook, “The Merchant Network in 16th Century China: A
Discussion and Translation of Zhang Han on Merchants,” Journal of Economic and So-
cial History of the Orient 24, no. 2 (1981): 165–214. For a survey of the ten great geo graph-
i cally based merchant groups in Ming- Qing China, see Tang Lixing
, Shangren yu
Zhongguo jinshi shehui
(Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin, 1993), 43–71.
117. Gui
Youguang,
Zhenchuan xiansheng ji
, SBCK, juan 13: 188.
118. Gui Zhuang ji
(Shanghai: Guji, 1984), vol. 2, juan 6: 359–360.
119. Sylvia Thrupp, The Merchant Class of Medieval London (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1948), chap. 6, “Trade and Gentility.” The quotes are on p. 269 and pp. 286–287,
respectively.
120. Wang Yangming quanji, vol. 2, juan 32: 1171.
121. Li Mengyang, Kongtong ji
, SKQS, juan 46: 420. For a detailed study of Wang
Xian and the genealogy of the Wang family, see Ono Kazuko
, Minki tōsha ko
(Kyoto: Dohosha, 1996), 79–82.
122. See Tang Lixing, Shangren yu Zhongguo jinshi shehui, 93; 200–201.
123. Meicun jiacang gao, juan 50: 222.
124. He Liangjun
, Siyouzhai congshuo
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1983), 32.
125. Tang Shunzhi
, Jingchuan xiansheng wenji
, SBCK, juan 16: 337.
126. MCHS, 74.
127. THJ, 13:6b–8b; 19:18b–20b.
128. Qian Daxin
, Qianyantang wenji
, SBCK, juan 28: 461–462.
129. Mingshi
, 24:7386.
130. Jingchuan xiansheng wenji, juan 6: 119.
131. Li
Le
, Jianwen zaji
, preface dated 1601 (Shanghai: Guji, 1986), 1:285.
132. Songchuang mengyu, juan 7: 141.
133. Ling Mengchu
, Erke pa
i-an jingqi
(fi rst printed in 1632, juan 37),
quoted in MCHS, 46.
134. THJ, 77:8b.
135. Wang
Shizhen,
Yanzhou sibu gao
, SKQS, vol. 4, juan 95: 539.
136. See, nevertheless, the case of Zhang Yuanhuan of the early sixteenth century in
MCHS, 93.
137. Quoted and discussed in Terada Takanobu
, Sansei shonin no kenkyū
(Kyoto: Tōyōshi kenkyū kai, 1972), 285–288.
138. Li Weizhen
, Taibi shanfang ji
(Wanli, 1573–1615 edition), juan 70: 17b.
139. Ibid., 106:24a; 114:17a– b.
140. Yanzhou sibu gao, vol. 3, juan 76: 281–283.
141. Wang Shizhen, Yanzhou xugao
, SKQS, vol. 3, juan 93: 344.
busine s s c ul t ur e a nd c h ine s e t r adi t ions 271
142. See my “Shi- shang hudong yu Ruxue zhuanxiang— Ming Qing shehuishi yu sixiang-
shi zhi yi mianxiang”
— —
, in Zhong-
guo jinshi zhi chuantong yu tuibian: Liu Kwang- ching yuanshi qishiwu sui zhushou lunwen
ji
:
, ed. Hao Yanping
and
Wei Xiumei
(Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1998), 3–52.
143. Quoted in Terada Takanobu, Sansei shonin no kenkyū, 296.
144. See Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (London and Sydney:
Unwin Paperbacks, 1985), 24–25; 68.
145. Tang Lixing, Shangren yu Zhongguo jinshi shehui, 220–221.
146. MCHS, 461–462.
147. THJ, 52:12a.
148. Terada Takanobu, Sansei shonin no kenkyū, 321–324. See the case of the sixteenth-
century merchant from Shanxi named Zhang Sijiao
quoted and discussed in
Ono Kazuko, Minki tōsha ko, 84–85.
149. Takeda Kusuo
, “Tōzai jūroku sekai shōsan no taiketsu”
, Kagakushi kenkyū
36 (October– December 1955): 17–22; 38 (April– June
1956): 10–16; 39 (July– September 1956): 7–14. For a recent discussion on this point, see
Jack Goody, The East in the West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996),
78–81.
150. THJ, 54:20a. The term xinsuan was fi rst applied by Sima Qian to the famous merchant-
turned- offi
cial Sang Hongyang
of the Han dynasty. See SJ, vol. 4, juan 30: 1428.
151. Gu
Xiancheng
, Xiaoxinzhai zhaji
(Taipei: Guangwen, [1877] 1975),
juan 14: 344–345.
152. Wang Wan
, Yaofeng wenchao
, SBCK, juan 16: 175.
153. Sun Xingyan
, “Wusong yuan wengao”
, in his Sun Yuanru shiwen ji
, SBCK, 112.
154. Cheng Chunyu
, Shishang leiyao
(Nanjing: Wenlin ke, 1626), juan 2:
