So the presidential face on the hoardings and the TV screens has changed; or rather morphed into that of its predecessor’s deputy. And a much publicized National Dialogue – a fresh breath of ‘real’ politics in which the diverse elements of society actually told each other what they thought, for once – has laid a primrose path of good intentions, but has so far done little to found the footings of a more just society. Meanwhile, the idealistic voices that survived the bullets are being drowned out by a clamour of competing self-interests. Perhaps the old story of the Marib Dam’s collapse is a parable: the rat, the rot within; the warning voices unheeded; the drowning of those thousand youths on their thousand skewbald horses.
In Yemen, as I wrote,† the past is always present; and that includes its more baleful aspects. Now, as I write, I want to look to the future, to proclaim that Yemen could be the pioneering state of the region, certainly politically, maybe even economically (what a workforce! what a history of enterprise! what a marketplace!); if … But at the moment there are too many Ifs. And as another old saying goes, ‘I sowed “if” in the valley of “it might be”, and I reaped “would that it had been”.’
Back to the beginning, to that title, Yemen: The Unknown Arabia. It is in fact the title of the American edition, and I used never to be entirely comfortable with it.* Yemen might have been ‘unknown’ in the past; but I was putting that right, wasn’t I? Yet it is a title that has grown on me, and partly because in a sense it has grown more accurate. If Yemen is ‘known’ abroad, now, it tends to be as a lair for those lurking terrorists (I have yet to meet one, knowingly, thank goodness). The richer, stranger, subtler reality – the diversity of land and people, those plural genii of place that I have tried to grasp and portray – is probably even less known outside than it was two decades ago.
Indeed, in some ways Yemen is receding from the rest of the region and of the planet. To revisit the parable of the Marib Dam, the Qur’an says that in the aftermath of its collapse the ancient Sabaean Yemenis brought yet more doom upon themselves, by asking God to lengthen the distances they travelled to their neighbours: ‘And they wronged themselves, and We made them as but tales.’ Today, the neighbouring, fellow-Arab Gulf states, a couple of hours’ flying time away, are an impossibly distant dream for almost all Yemenis; to me they seem a sort of parallel universe, a looking-glass Arabia. That said, the distancing is mutual. Eating my breakfast beans in the suq the other week, my place mat – the usual torn sheet of newsprint from the Gulf – had an article about a Hollywood actress opening a ‘table tennis themed’ restaurant in Dubai, where you can play the game (as apéritif or a digestif?) as well as sample the international cuisine. One of the tables, the article said, is gold-plated. I confess I felt a passing urge for gilded ping-pong and foie gras. But I think I’ll stick with my beans.
If The Unknown Arabia has proved a prophetic title as far as the rest of the world goes, then the greater sadness would be if Yemen – the diverse, plural Yemen of this book – were to become unknown to the Yemenis themselves. It will do, if they listen only to the more strident slogans of the present – for example the ‘You are our homeland, O Ali!’ of the partisans of the former president (l’état, c’est lui? I thought Yemen was meant to be a republic),* or the ‘Death to America!’ of the neo-Zaydis (why not death to poverty, corruption, ignorance?). The people of Yemen should listen to the gentler, more polyphonic voices of the past.
Then again, the most vital voices to heed are the hardest of all to hear. They are the voices of those processions of Yemeni sons and Yemeni daughters yet unborn. Listen to them … Are they blessing the graves of their sleeping ancestors, alive today, or cursing them?
Tim Mackintosh-Smith
San’a, Yemen
March 2014
Glossary
abayah A loose-fitting over-garment of flimsy material
Abbasids Dynasty of caliphs whose ancestor, Abbas, was the Prophet Muhammad’s paternal uncle. Their capital was Baghdad, where they ruled from 750 until 1258 when they were overthrown by Mongol invaders. Despite their claim as caliphs – khalifahs, or successors, of the Prophet – to be the leaders of the entire Muslim world, the Abbasids’ authority began to wane almost from the start; from the ninth century onward local rulers in many Islamic lands, including Yemen, asserted their independence.
abu/abi Father (of); possessor of, as in Abu Shawarib, ‘(the man) with the moustaches’. Often appears as a component of names
Ad The prehistoric People of Ad, or Adites, are often mentioned in the Qur’an. They lived in al-Ahqaf, a region identified with the area around Wadi Hadramawt. The Adites – and their fabulously wealthy capital, Iram of the Columns – were destroyed by God when they refused to worship Him, as commanded by the Prophet Hud.
Adnanis The name given by traditional genealogists to Arabs of northern origin. Their ancestor was Adnan, a descendant of Isma’il b. Ibrahim (Ishmael the son of Abraham).
Al Family, clan, as in Al Afrar. Not to be confused with the definite article, al-
ali ‘Mechanical’. The usual name for the AK47 assault rifle
ambar Ambergris
asid Porridge of sorghum flour, usually eaten with broth and clarified butter. A traditional food of the highlands
asr Afternoon (prayers)
atlal Traces of an abandoned dwelling or encampment. A frequent subject of amatory verse
Ayyubids A medieval dynasty named after Ayyub, a Kurd originally from Armenia. In 117½, his son Salah al-Din (Saladin) ousted the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt. A year later, Salah al-Din’s brother Turanshah led an expedition to Yemen, probably for both political and commercial reasons. He occupied Tihamah, Aden and Ta’izz; San’a was taken by another brother, Tughtakin, in 1189/90. The Ayyubids were able to bring a degree of unity to Yemen, which at the time was split between a number of local powers; but their rule was precarious, and ended with the departure of the last Ayyubid sultan in 1228/9. The deputy to whom he entrusted the affairs of Yemen declared independence and founded the Rasulid dynasty.
Ba A common component of Hadrami family names, like Ba Abbad
bab Door, gateway
badw Rural people, nomads, ‘bedouin’
baghiyyah A grade of honey, literally ‘an object of desire’
baghlah A large ocean-going sailing vessel of the Arabian Gulf. Literally ‘a she-mule’, the word probably derives from the Latin vascellum via Spanish-Portuguese bajel. It entered English as ‘buggalow’.
banu/bani Descendants (of). Used to denote a tribe or subsection of a tribe, a tribal territory, and occasionally a dynasty
bara’ A display of steps (not, strictly speaking, a dance), performed to the beating of drums
barakah Blessing emanating from God, which may be transmitted through particularly pious individuals or places associated with them
bayt House. Often used to mean ‘family’, and as a component of the names of villages, like Bayt Ma’din
bin Son (of). See also ibn
dar Large house, palace, as in Dar al-Hajar. Occasionally a component of the names of villages, like Dar Salm
da’wah Call, summons, invitation. Also the announcement that one is standing as a candidate for the imamate
Dhu/Dhi Possessor of, endowed with. Often appears in the names of pre-Islamic notables, like Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan; and sometimes in the names of tribes, like Dhu Muhammad
fils A small coin (from the Greek obolos)
funduq Hotel, inn (from the Greek pandokheion)
futah A sewn waist-cloth, sarong
ghayl A flowing stream; a man-made water channel, often partially subterranean
Hadramawt The Kingdom of Hadramawt seems to have been an ally or vassal of Saba until the fourth century BC, when it became independent. From its capital, Shabwah (known to Classical writers as Sabota), it controlled the production of frankincense; its wealth enabled it to become an expansionist military power. At the beginning of the third century AD it was defeated by the Sab
aean army, and towards the end of the century was absorbed, like Saba itself, into the Kingdom of Himyar.
halal Permitted in religious law (the opposite of haram)
hani’an ‘May you [have] enjoy[ed] it!’ – in reference to food or drink. Often said when someone belches after a meal
harish Porridge of coarsely ground wheat, eaten with clarified butter and, on special occasions, honey
hawri A small boat of narrow beam, similar in shape to a canoe
hijrah Protected, inviolable place or person. Used for enclaves reserved for religious study and/or trade, and for persons who may not be attacked in a dispute. Any violation of a hijrah will incur the severest penalties. The Hijrah of the Prophet Muhammad was his migration from Mecca to al-Madinah.
Himyar Name of a people and of the last great power of pre-Islamic Yemen. The Himyaris descend, according to traditional genealogy, from Himyar b. Saba. Their power-base was in the southern highlands of Yemen; their capital was Zafar, near Yarim. The decline of overland trade in the last centuries before the Christian era, together with the rise in maritime commerce, prompted the Himyaris to develop ports along the Red Sea coast of Yemen. By the first century AD they had become a military power and were contesting the Sabaean royal title. At the end of the third century, they finally succeeded in overthrowing the Sabaeans and absorbed the Kingdom of Hadramawt. Later attempts to enlarge their domains are attested by a Himyari inscription of the early fifth century, found in Central Arabia. The dynasty effectively ended with the Ethiopian invasion a century later.
ibn Son (of). Often abbreviated to ‘b.’. Appears as a component of personal names, like Ibn al-Mujawir. See also bin
Idrisis In 1909/10, Muhammad b. Ali al-Idrisi – a descendant of the Idrisi sharifs who had ruled in tenth-century Morocco – set himself up as an independent ruler in Asir. With the end of the First World War and the expulsion of the Ottomans from Yemen, he occupied part of Tihamah including the port of al-Hudaydah. In this the British supported him, but he was ousted by Imam Yahya when British backing was withdrawn in 1925.
ilb Zizyphus spina-Christi, the jujube tree. Valuable as a source of timber and fruit (the small berries are called dawm), and as a source of food for bees
Imam The title held by the leaders of various Shi’ah groups. Also a leader of prayers.
In Yemen, the imams of the Zaydi sect (the most moderate of all Shi’ah groups, named after a third-generation descendant of the Prophet Muhammad’s daughter, Fatimah, and his cousin Ali b. Abi Talib) proved to be the most enduring power in Islamic times. The Zaydi imam was both spiritual and temporal ruler; although any suitably qualified descendant of Ali and Fatimah could make a bid for the title, in practice it often remained within one sayyid family for several generations. The imamate lasted from 897 until the Revolution of 1962, reaching its zenith under al-Mutawakkil Isma’il (ruled 1644–76): he controlled the whole of present-day Yemen, and his spiritual suzerainty was recognized as far away as Yanbu’ in the northern Hijaz. For much of its history, however, the imamate was in conflict with other powers, both internal and external, and its real authority was often limited to the north-western part of Yemen. The capital of the imamate varied according to political events and to the whims of individual imams; later holders of the title usually resided in San’a.
iqal A cord of camel hair used to keep the headscarf in place. Not worn by Yemenis
jabal Mountain, mountain range
jambiyah A curved dagger, literally a ‘side-arm’ but worn most often in the middle, over the stomach
jinn The third group of rational beings, along with men and angels. The jinn (singular jinni) are invisible to mortals, but can affect their lives
Kathiris A tribe originally prominent in Dhofar. In the sixteenth century, their leader Badr Bu Tuwayraq conquered extensive territories in Hadramawt and inaugurated the Kathiri Sultanate. Subsequently, much of their land was lost, particularly to the Qu’aytis in the nineteenth century, although the Kathiris retained Say’un as their capital. The last Kathiri ruler was deposed after the British withdrawal in 1967.
kidam Leavened bread rolls of Turkish origin, made of a mixture of different types of grain
lukanda A dormitory or doss-house (from the Italian locanda). The cheapest form of overnight accommodation
mafraj A large room for entertaining guests, situated either at the top of a house or at ground level. In the latter case, the mafraj opens on to a pool with fountains.
Ma’in A pre-Islamic state in Wadi al-Jawf. Once believed to be older than Saba, it is now thought that the Ma’inians (also known as Minaeans) broke away from the larger state towards the end of the fifth century BC and remained independent for some 250 years. Although Ma’in appears not to have been a military power, its commercial influence is evident from the existence of a trading colony set up by Ma’inians in the far north-west of Arabia, and from inscriptions found in Egypt and the Aegean.
Mamluks The word, which means ‘owned’ or ‘possessed’, generally refers to slave-soldiers of European or Asian origin. Mamluk dynasties ruled in Egypt and the Levant from the mid-thirteenth century until 1517, when they were overthrown by the Ottomans. In 1516 a body of Mamluks, fleeing from the Ottoman advance, took control of the Yemeni island of Kamaran; from there they occupied Tihamah and many other parts of the country including, briefly, San’a. The success of their short-lived expedition, which effectively ended the power of the Tahirids, was largely due to their use of firearms.
mizmar The double reed-pipe, the most common musical instrument in country regions
mutur Motor cycle
nabi Prophet
nakhudhah A ship’s captain (from the Persian naw khuda)
nasrani Properly, a Christian, but often used in Yemen to mean ‘a Western foreigner’ (hence one may be asked if there are Jewish nasranis)
nawbah A round tower
nurah Lime plaster
Ottomans Turkish dynasty taking its name from Uthman, a fourteenth-century leader of the Ghuzz Turks in Asia Minor. In 1538 the Ottomans occupied Aden and began taking over Lower Yemen and Tihamah. San’a, however, was not captured until 1547. Yemeni resistance to the Ottomans, under Imam al-Qasim and his son Imam al-Mu’ayyad, resulted in their expulsion in 1636. The mid-nineteenth century saw renewed Ottoman expansion in Arabia. At first, their presence in Yemen was limited to Tihamah, but reinforcements sent by way of the newly opened Suez Canal were able to take San’a in 1872. Some twenty years later, Yemeni resistance united under Imam Muhammad Hamid al-Din; it continued under his son Imam Yahya, with whom the Turks signed a power-sharing agreement in 1911. Following their defeat in the First World War the Ottomans left Yemen, although some Turkish officials stayed on to work in Imam Yahya’s administration. During both occupations, Ottoman authority was largely limited to the cities.
PDRY The People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (originally the People’s Republic of South Yemen) came into being with the British withdrawal from Aden on 30 November 1967. It ceased to exist on 22 May 1990, when it merged with the YAR (Yemen Arab Republic) to form the unified Republic of Yemen.
qa’ A plain. The word often occurs in toponyms, like Qa’Jahran
qabili A tribesman
qadi A judge. Often used as an honorific title for members of certain families known for their learning
Qahtanis The name given by traditional genealogists to Arabs of southern origin. Their ancestor was Qahtan (biblical Joktan), the son of the Prophet Hud. (Some accounts make Qahtan, like Adnan, a descendant of Isma’il.)
Qataban One of the lesser states of pre-Islamic Yemen, Qataban (or Qitban) probably became independent from Saba at the end of the fifth century BC. At its greatest extent, Qatabanian territory covered the area from south of Marib to the Gulf of Aden; the capital was Timna’/Tamna’ in Wadi Bayhan. From the second century BC onwards, rival states began to encroach on Qatabanian domains, and the name finally disappeared from inscriptions in the second century AD.
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qatal Leaves or sprigs of qat, plucked usually from the lower branches of the tree
qishr The husks of the coffee bean, or the drink made from them (often flavoured with ginger)
Qu’aytis The Qu’ayti Sultanate of Hadramawt was founded in 1858 by Umar b. Awad al-Qu’ayti, a member of a Yafi’i tribe who had enriched himself in the service of the Nizam of Hyderabad. From their capital in al-Mukalla, the Qu’aytis expanded their territory at the expense of the Kathiris, becoming the principal power in Hadramawt. The last Qu’ayti Sultan was deposed following the British withdrawal in 1967.
ramlah/-t A stretch of sandy ground, a component of names like Ramlat al-Sab’atayn
ra’s Head; headland, as in Ra’s Fartak
Rasulids A medieval dynasty in Yemen named after Muhammad b. Harun al-Rasul, who earned his surname by acting as an envoy (rasul) for the Abbasid Caliph. According to Rasulid historians, the family descended from the Yemeni tribe of Ghassan, who had migrated northwards in the pre-Islamic period and had subsequently intermarried with Turkoman tribes. In 1228/9 Muhammad b. Harun’s grandson Umar was appointed to govern Yemen by the last Ayyubid sultan of the country; he soon declared independence. Over the next few decades, the Rasulids gained control of the whole of Yemen, and at times their rule extended to Dhofar and even Mecca. The Rasulid sultans both promoted and actively participated in many branches of the arts and sciences; their capitals, Ta’izz and Zabid, became centres of learning. Later Rasulid history was marked by a decline in power and by internecine disputes, and in 1454 the Tahirids took over what remained of their territory.
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