KIRTLE
A kirtle is a long tunic-like dress worn by women in the Middle Ages into the baroque period. The kirtle was typically worn over a chemise or smock and under a formal outer garment or gown.
KNIGHTS HOSPITALLER
The Knights Hospitaller, also known as the Knights of St John, Order of St John (and currently The Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta), were among the most famous of the Western Christian military orders during the Middle Ages. The Hospitallers arose as a group of individuals associated with an Amalfitan hospital in the Muristan district of Jerusalem, which was dedicated to St John the Baptist and was founded around 1023 by Blessed Gerard Thom to provide care for poor, sick or injured pilgrims to the Holy Land.
KNIGHTS TEMPLAR
The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, commonly known as the Knights Templar, were among the most famous of the Western Christian military orders of the Middle Ages and existed for nearly two centuries. Founded by Christian zealot Hugh de Payens and eight associates in 1119, it was officially endorsed by the Catholic Church around 1129. The Order became a favoured charity throughout Christendom and grew rapidly in membership and power. Knights Templar, in their distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades. Non-combatant members of the Order managed a large economic infrastructure throughout Europe, introducing financial techniques that were an early form of banking, and building fortifications across Europe and the Holy Land.
The Templars’ existence was tied closely to the Crusades; when the Holy Land was lost, support for the Order faded. Rumours about the Templars’ secret initiation ceremony created mistrust and King Philip IV of France, deeply in debt to the Order, took advantage of the situation. In 1307, many of the Order’s members in France were arrested, tortured into giving false confessions, and then burned at the stake. Under pressure from King Philip, Pope Clement V disbanded the Order in 1312. The abrupt disappearance of a major part of the European infrastructure gave rise to speculation and legends, which have kept the ‘Templar’ name alive into the modern day.
LATEEN SAIL
A lateen (from the French latine, meaning ‘Latin’), or latin-rig, is a triangular sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast, and running in a fore-and-aft direction. Dating back to Roman navigation, the lateen became the favourite sail of the Age of Discovery.
LATT
An ancient Arabic mace, usually with a heavy bronze or lead head, sitting atop a thick wooden shaft of ash.
LEINE
The leine is a unisex smock of Celtic peoples, not unlike a Roman toga. The word means ‘shirt’ and early descriptions from the fifth to the twelfth centuries talk of a long smock-like linen garment, ankle-length or knee-length, either sleeveless or with straight sleeves.
LEOPARD’S BANE
Derived from aconite, a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. Known as ‘the queen of poisons’, it is also known as monkshood, wolf’s bane, women’s bane, devil’s helmet or blue rocket. It has been used as a poison all over the world for centuries.
LOCUTORY
A room in a monastery for conversation, also a place where monks or nuns might meet with people from the outside world.
LODESTONE
A lodestone is a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite. Ancient people first discovered the property of magnetism in lodestone. Pieces of lodestone, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses and their importance to early navigation is indicated by their name, which in Middle English means ‘course stone’ or ‘leading stone’.
LUTE
A lute can refer to any string instrument having the strings running in a plane parallel to the sound table, more specifically to any plucked string instrument with a neck (either fretted or unfretted) and a deep round back. The player of a lute is called a lutenist, lutanist or lutist, and a maker of lutes (or any string instrument) is referred to as a luthier.
LYAM HOUND
A lyam hound or lime-hound (also known as limer or lymer) was a scent hound, used on a leash in medieval times to find large game before it was hunted down by the pack. The term originates from the Middle English lyam, meaning ‘leash’.
MACHICOLATIONS
A machicolation is a floor opening between the supporting corbels of a battlement, through which stones, or other objects, could be dropped on attackers at the base of a defensive wall. The design was adopted in the Middle Ages in Europe when Norman crusaders returned from the Holy Land. A machicolated battlement projects outwards from the supporting wall in order to facilitate this. The word derives from the Old French word macher, ‘to crush’, and col, meaning ‘neck’.
MAILLE
See ‘hauberk’.
MANTICORE
A Persian legendary creature similar to the Egyptian sphinx (which is female). It has the body of a (male) red or golden lion, a human head with three rows of sharp teeth and a trumpet-like voice. Other aspects of the creature vary from story to story. It may be horned, winged, or both. The tail is that of either a dragon or a scorpion, and it may shoot poisonous spines or arrows. Sometimes it is portrayed as a hunter armed with a bow. It may have come into European mythology in Roman times or as a result of the First Crusade.
MANTLE
A mantle (from mantellum, the Latin term for a cloak) is a long, loose cape-like cloak for outdoor protection worn by men and women from the twelfth to the sixteenth century.
MAQLUBA
Maqluba, sometimes pronounced as Maaluba or Magluba, is a traditional dish of the Arab Levant and Palestine. The dish includes meat, rice and fried vegetables placed in a pot, which is then flipped upside down when served, hence the name, which translates literally as ‘upside down’.
MARK
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries German silver marks were equivalent to two-thirds of a pound of sterling silver.
MEAD
Mead, also called honey wine, is an alcoholic beverage that is produced by brewing a solution of honey and water. It may also be produced by brewing a solution of water and honey with grain mash, which is strained after fermentation. Depending on local traditions and specific recipes, it may be flavoured with spices, fruit or hops (which produce a bitter, beer-like flavour). It may be still, carbonated or naturally sparkling, and it may be dry, semi-sweet or sweet.
The tradition of mead-making as a by-product of beekeeping still continues, a well-known example being at Lindisfarne, where mead continues to be made to this day, albeit not in the monastery itself.
MELEK-RIC
The Arab name for King Richard, literally ‘King Richard’. Such was his reputation that for generations Arab children were warned that if they did not behave, ‘Melek-Ric will come to get you!’
MIDDEN
A domestic waste and sewage dump for a village or burgh. A word of Scandinavian origin, it is still in use in Scotland and the English Pennines.
MILLSTONE GRIT
Millstone grit is the name given to a number of coarse-grained carboniferous sandstones which occur in northern England. The name derives from its use in earlier times as a source of millstones for use principally in watermills. It is found in the Peak District, Pennines and neighbouring areas of northern England.
MINIVER
Miniver is an unspotted white fur derived from the stoat, and with particular use in the robes of peers.
MOS MILITUM
A code of knightly ethics, loosely based on the ancient noble tradition of the Roman aristocracy and the influence of Islamic ethics, such as those of the Futuwwa, which appeared in the late eleventh century and formed the basis of the values of the Age of Chivalry.
MOTTE AND BAILEY
A motte-and-bailey castle is a fortification with a wooden or stone keep (or donjon) situated on a raised earthwork called a motte, accompanied by an enclosed courtyard, or bai
ley, surrounded by a protective ditch and palisade. Relatively easy to build with unskilled, often forced labour, but still militarily formidable, these castles were built across northern Europe from the tenth century onwards, spreading from Normandy and Anjou in France, into the Holy Roman Empire in the eleventh century. The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales following their invasion in 1066.
NOBILISSIMUS
From the Latin nobilissimus (most noble). Originally a title given to close relatives of the Emperor, during the Comneni period, the title was awarded to officials and foreign dignitaries.
OCCITAN
Also known as Lenga d’òc by its native speakers, Occitan is a Romance language spoken in southern France, Italy’s Occitan Valleys, Monaco and Catalonia’s Val d’Aran (the regions sometimes known unofficially as Occitania). It is also spoken in the linguistic enclave of Guardia Piemontese (Calabria, Italy). Occitan is a descendant of the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire. It is an official language in Catalonia, known as Aranese in Val d’Aran. Occitan’s closest relative is Catalan.
OSTMEN
The Ostmen were the Norse-Gaels, a people who dominated much of the Irish Sea region, including the Isle of Man and western Scotland, for most of the Middle Ages. They were of Gaelic and Scandinavian (Viking) origin. Other terms used include Scoto-Norse, Hiberno-Norse, Irish-Norse and Foreign Gaels.
OUBLIETTE
From the French, meaning ‘forgotten place’, this was a form of dungeon which was accessible only from a hole in a high ceiling. The word comes from the same root as the French oublier (to forget), as it was used to hold those prisoners that captors wished to forget.
OUTREMER
Outremer, French (outre-mer) for ‘overseas’, was a generic name given to the Crusader States established after the First Crusade: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and especially the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The name equates to the ‘Levant’ of the Renaissance. The term was, in general, used to refer to any land ‘overseas’; for example, Louis IV of France was called ‘Louis d’Outremer’ as he was raised in England. The modern term outre-mer (spelled with a hyphen) is used for the overseas departments and territories of France (Départements d’outre-mer).
PALLIASSE
A thin mattress of linen, wool or cotton, filled with animal hair, straw, wool or even sawdust.
PECTORAL CROSS
A pectoral cross or pectorale, from the Latin pectoralis (of the chest), is a cross that is worn on the chest, usually suspended from the neck by a cord or chain. In ancient times pectoral crosses were worn by both clergy and laity, but during the Middle Ages the pectoral cross came to be indicative of high ecclesiastical status and was only worn by bishops and abbots.
PENNON
A small streamer-like flag, flown at the top of a knight’s lance to signify his status. It would have a combination of one, two or three colours to identify him, his origins or the lord he served.
PENNYROYAL
Pennyroyal is a plant in the mint family Lamiaceae. The leaves of the European pennyroyal exhibit a very strong fragrance similar to spearmint when crushed. Pennyroyal is a traditional culinary herb, folk remedy and abortifacient (a substance that induces abortion).
PHRYGIAN CAP
The Phrygian cap is a soft conical cap with the top pulled forward, associated in antiquity with the inhabitants of Phrygia, a region of central Anatolia. In the Roman Empire, it came to signify freedom and the pursuit of liberty, probably through a confusion with the pileus, the felt cap of emancipated slaves of ancient Rome. The Phrygian cap is sometimes called a liberty cap.
PIKE
A pike is a pole weapon. It is a long, sometimes very long (even up to sixteen feet and beyond) thrusting spear used extensively by infantry. Unlike many similar weapons, the pike is not intended to be thrown, but is a defensive weapon, especially against cavalry. Pikes were used by the armies of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great and regularly in European warfare from the early Middle Ages until around 1700, wielded by foot soldiers deployed in close order. They were also common in the armies of Asia.
PIPE ROLLS
Sometimes called the Great Rolls, they are a collection of financial records maintained by the English Exchequer, or Treasury. The earliest date from the twelfth century, and the series extends, mostly complete, from then until 1833. They form the oldest continuous series of records kept by the English government, covering a span of about 700 years.
PLENARY INDULGENCE
In Catholic theology, an indulgence is the full (plenary) or partial remission of temporal punishment due for sins. The indulgence is granted by the Church after the sinner has confessed and received absolution. They are granted for specific good works and prayers. Abuses in selling and granting indulgences were a major point of contention when Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation, in 1517.
POSTERN
A postern is a secondary door or gate, particularly in a fortification like a city wall or castle curtain wall. Posterns were often located in a concealed location, allowing the occupants to come and go inconspicuously. In the event of a siege, a postern could act as a sally port, allowing defenders to make a sortie on the besiegers.
PUGIO
Shorter than the gladius (the standard heavy, stocky sword of the Roman army), the pugio was a side-arm, a weapon of last resort, a tool of assassination and often a highly decorated status symbol for senior army officers and members of the equestrian class.
PURPLE
The colour of the robes of the emperors of Byzantium and, before them, the emperors of Rome and the early bishops of the Church. ‘The Purple’ has become synonymous with imperial rule, piety and tradition and purple is still regarded as the colour of power and authority.
PUTRID FEVER
One of the many names for epidemic typhus. The name comes from the Greek typhos (hazy), describing the state of mind of those affected. Symptoms include severe headache, high fever, severe muscle pain, falling blood pressure, stupor, sensitivity to light and delirium.
PYX
A pyx or pix, from the Latin pyxis (box-wood receptacle), is a small round container used in the Catholic, Old Catholic and Anglican Churches to carry the consecrated Host (Eucharist) to the sick or those otherwise unable to come to a church in order to receive Holy Communion.
QAADI
A qaadi is a judge ruling in accordance with Islamic religious law (sharia) appointed by the ruler of a Muslim country. Because Islam makes no distinction between religious and secular domains, qaadis traditionally have jurisdiction over all legal matters involving Muslims.
QUARREL
A quarrel, or bolt, is the term for the ammunition used in a crossbow. The name is derived from the French carré (square), referring to the fact that they typically have square heads. Although their length varies, they are shorter than longbow arrows.
ROUTIERS
Routiers were bands of mercenary soldiers, mainly infantry, dating from the mid-twelfth century. They were usually seen in France, Aquitaine and Occitan but also in Normandy, England and the lands of the Holy Roman Emperor. They were noted for their lawlessness and ruthlessness. King John’s use of mercenaries in his civil wars led to the condemnation and banishment of mercenaries in the Magna Carta, in 1215.
SABLE
The sable is a species of marten which inhabits forest environments. Its range in the wild originally extended through European Russia to Poland and Scandinavia. It has historically been harvested for its highly valued dark-brown fur, which remains a luxury good to this day.
SANCTUS BELL
In the Roman Catholic Church and in some Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist churches, the sanctus bell, a small hand bell or set of bells, is rung shortly before the consecration of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ, and again when the consecrated elements are shown to the people.
SCAPULAR
The monastic scapular dates from as early
as the seventh century in the Order of Saint Benedict. It is a large length of cloth suspended both front and back from the shoulders of the wearer, often reaching to the knees. It may vary in shape, colour, size and style. Monastic scapulars originated as aprons worn by medieval monks and now form part of the habit of monks and nuns in many Christian orders.
SEAX
A short, stabbing sword, sometimes as short as a dagger. Seax is an Old English term for ‘knife’.
SENLAC RIDGE (OR HILL)
The original name for the site of what is now known as the Battle of Hastings in 1066 between the Norman army of William, Duke of Normandy, and the English army of Harold, King of England. Victory for William led to a Norman dynasty on the English throne and a dramatic new course for English and British history. A few miles north of Hastings on England’s south coast, it was originally known in English as Santlache (Sandy Stream), which the Normans changed into Sanguelac (Blood Lake) and which was then shortened to Senlac. Senlac Hill was approximately 275 feet (84 metres) above sea level, before the top of the ridge was levelled off to create Battle Abbey.
SHAMSHIR
A shamshir is a type of sabre with a curve of five to fifteen degrees from hilt to tip. The name is derived from the Persian shamshīr, which means ‘sword’.
SHARBAT
Sharbat (or sherbet) is a popular West and South Asian drink that is prepared from fruits or flower petals. It is sweet and served chilled. Popular sharbats are made of one or more of the following: rose, sandalwood, lemon, orange, mango or pineapple. The word ‘sharbat’ is from Persian and ‘sherbet’ is from Turkish, both of which in turn come from the Arabic sharba (a drink). The word is related to ‘syrup’ in English, sorbet in French and sorbetto in Italian.
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