50. In the Iliad, Hektor names his son Skamandrios after the Skamander River. On potamonymy, see R. Parker, “Theophoric Names and the History of Greek Religion,” in Greek Personal Names, eds. S. Hornblower and E. Matthews (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 59–60; P. Thonemann, “Neilomandros: A Contribution to the History of Greek Personal Names,” Chiron 36 (2006): 11–43; P. Thonemann, The Maeander Valley: A Historical Geography from Antiquity to Byzantium (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 26–31.
51. Parker, Polytheism and Society, 430–31.
52. Athens National Archaeological Museum 2756; IG I3 987 (CEG II 744); IG II2 4547–8; LIMC 6, s.v. “Kephisos,” no. 2. See E. Voutyras, “Φροντίσματα: Το ανάγλυφο της Ξενοκράτειας και το ιερό του Κηφισού στο Νέο Φάληρο,” in Επαινος Luigi Beschi, ed. A. Delivorrias, G. Despinis, and A. Zarkadas (Athens: Benaki Museum, 2011), 49–58, for Xenokrateia establishing her own shrine within the city walls; and discussion in I. Mylonopoulos, “Buildings, Images, and Rituals in the Greek World,” in The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Art and Architecture, forthcoming. See also A. L. Purvis, Singular Dedications: Founders and Innovators of Private Cults in Classical Greece, ed. C. Marconi (New York: Routledge, 2003), 15–32; Guarducci, “L’offerta di Xenokrateia nel santuario di Cefiso al Falero”; E. Mitropoulou, Corpus I: Attic Votive Reliefs of the 6th and 5th Centuries B.C. (Athens: Pyli, 1977), no. 65; A. Linfert, “Die Deutung des Xenokrateiareliefs,” AM 82 (1967): 149–57.
53. See D’Alessio, “Textual Fluctuations and Cosmic Streams.”
54. Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.37.3.
55. Parker, Polytheism and Society, 431; Pindar, Pythian Ode 4.145 (cf. Homer, Iliad 23.142); Aeschylus, The Mourners 6; “Simonides” 32b in FGE; Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.37.3.
56. Euripides, Ion 1261.
57. LIMC 1, s.v. “Acheloös,” nos. 1–5.
58. The largest of the four, the Kephisos of Mount Parnassos, rose from a spring named for a naiad nymph, Lilaia, a daughter of the Kephisos. See Aelian, Historical Miscellany 2.33.
59. Aristophanes, Wasps 1362; Strabo, Geography 9.1.24; H. Foley, ed., Homeric Hymn to Demeter: Translation, Commentary, and Interpretative Essays (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), 67; J. S. Rusten, “Wasps 1360–69: Philocleon’s τωθασμός,” HSCP 81 (1977): 157–61; Mylonas, Eleusinian Mysteries, 256, no. 150; J. Henderson, The Maculate Muse: Obscene Language in Attic Comedy (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1975), 16.
60. See Graf, “Pompai in Greece,” 60, 63; S. des Bouvrie, “Continuity and Change Without Individual Agency: The Attic Ritual Theatre and the ‘Socially Unquestionable’ in the Tragic Genre,” in Chaniotis, Ritual Dynamics in the Ancient Mediterranean, 139–78.
61. Strabo, Geography 9.1.24 (γεφυρισμοί), 6.12 (γεφυρίζοντες), 13.1 (γεφυρίζων); Plutarch, Life of Sulla 2.2 (γεφυριστω̑ν); Hesychios, s.v. γεφυρίς and γεφυρισταί; Suda, s.v. Γεφυρίζων. D. Clay, “Unspeakable Words in Greek Tragedy,” AJP 103 (1982): 298. For apotropaic interpretation, see Mylonas, Eleusinian Mysteries, 256–57; Connelly, “Towards an Archaeology of Performance,” 320.
62. D’Alessio, “Textual Fluctuations and Cosmic Streams,” and Smoot, “Poetics of Ethnicity in the Homeric Iliad,” point to evidence that the Acheloös was considered to be one and the same as the cosmic river Okeanos in certain parts of Greece during the classical period.
63. For Praxithea as daughter of the Kephisos, see Euripides, Erechtheus F 370.63 Kannicht; Lykourgos, Against Leokrates 99. For Praxithea as daughter of Diogeneia (another daughter of the Kephisos), see Apollodoros, Library 3.15.1.
64. Apollodoros, Library 3.14.8.
65. Hyginus, Fabulae 14.9.
66. Blok, “Gentrifying Genealogy,” 258; D. Henige, The Chronology of Oral Traditions: Quest for a Chimera (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), 37.
67. A. J. Ammerman, “The Eridanos Valley and the Athenian Agora,” AJA 100 (1996): 699–715; Eridanos: The River of Ancient Athens (Athens: Archaeological Receipts Fund, 2004); Zachariadou, “Syntagma Station,” 149–61; E. Baziotopoulou-Valavani and I. Tsirigoti-Drakotou, “Kerameikos,” in Parlama and Stampolidis, City Beneath the City, 264–75. Recent excavations at the Monastiraki metro station have revealed the brick-vaulted chambers of a Roman tunnel that guided wastewater from the Agora into the Eridanos. This now forms part of an open-air museum where the river can be heard flowing deep underground.
68. Thompson and Wycherley, Agora of Athens, 194–96; Lang, Waterworks in the Athenian Agora. By the second century A.D., the Eridanos served as a drain channel for the wastewaters of the densely populated city.
69. Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 299; W. Dörpfeld, “Der Eridanos,” AM 13 (1888): 211–20; U. Knigge, Ο Κεραμεικός της Αθήνας: Ιστορία-Μνημεία-Ανασκαφές (Athens: Krini, 1990); Lang, Waterworks in the Athenian Agora.
70. The river Styx and the Acheron are both located in northern Greece, and there is a sense that north is the direction for the Land of the Dead. Perhaps the location of the Kerameikos cemetery at the northwest of the city and on the banks of the Eridanos evoked this larger scheme. I thank Guy Smoot for making this point.
71. Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 204; R. E. Wycherley, Literary and Epigraphical Testimonia (Princeton, N.J.: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1957), 137–42.
72. Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 2.15.5.
73. Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 205.
74. Ibid., 289, 296, fig. 387.
75. Hesiod, Theogony 351, 981, 346.
76. Ibid., 287–94, 979–83; Apollodoros, Library 2.5; Stesichoros, Geryoneis frags. S11, S87; M. Davies, Poetarum melicorum Graecorum fragmenta (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); M. M. Davies, “Stesichoros’ Geryoneis and Its Folk-Tale Origins,” CQ, n.s., 38 (1988): 277–90.
77. Servius, On the Aeneid 4.250; Tzetzes, On Lykophron’s Alexandra 875.
78. Plato, Phaidros 229c; Kleidemos, Atthis 1; Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.19.6.
79. Discovered by the archaeologist A. Skias in 1897 and identified later that year by Wilhelm Dörpfeld. See Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 112–20; M. Miles, “The Date of the Temple on the Ilissos River,” Hesperia 49 (1980): 309–25; C. A. Picon, “The Ilissos Temple Reconsidered,” AJA 32 (1978): 375–424; J.-D. Le Roy, The Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of Greece, trans. D. Britt (1770; Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2004); Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of Athens, 1: chap. 2.
80. R. C. T. Parker, “Sacrifice and Battle,” in War and Violence in Ancient Greece, ed. H. van Wees (London: Duckworth, 2000), 299, 308–9; M. Jameson, “Sacrifice Before Battle,” in Hanson, Hoplites, 209–10.
81. Herodotos, Histories 6.117. Xenophon, Anabasis 3.2.11–12; Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 58.1; and Plutarch, Moralia 862, put the number of goats sacrificed at five hundred, while Aristophanes, Knights 660, places it at a thousand, and Aelian, Historical Miscellany 2.25, records the number as three hundred. See IG II2 1006.8–9. See Parker, Polytheism and Society, 400; Parker, Athenian Religion, 153–54. Plutarch, Moralia 862, mentioning “the solemn procession that the Athenians even at this day send to Agrai, celebrating a feast of thanksgiving to Hekate for their victory.”
82. J. Papadopoulos, “Always Present, Ever Changing, Never Lost from Human View: The Athenian Acropolis in the 21st Century,” AJA 17 (2013): 135–40; G. Marginesu, Gli epistati dell’Acropoli: Edilizia sacra nella città di Pericle, 447/6–433/2 a.C. (Paestum, Italy: Pandemos, 2010); R. Krumeich and C. Witschel, eds., Die Akropolis von Athen im Hellenismus und in der römischen Kaiserzeit (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2010); E. Greco, Topografia di Atene: Sviluppo urbano e monumenti dalle origini al III secolo d.C., vol. 1, Acropoli, Areopago, Tra Acropoli e Pnice (Paestum, Italy: Pandemos, 2010).
83. For the Neolithic Acropolis, see Pantelidou, Άι Προϊστορ
ικάι Αθήναι, 242–43; Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 67–70; Immerwahr, Neolithic and Bronze Ages, 16–17, 48, no. 219; S. A. Immerwahr, “The Earliest Athenian Grave,” in Studies in Athenian Architecture and Topography Presented to Homer A. Thompson, Hesperia Supplement 20 (Princeton, N.J.: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1982), 54–62. Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 67–68, identifies the earliest material found in the area of the Acropolis as a stray find of a Neolithic marble statuette of a corpulent woman (14 centimeters, or 5.5 inches, long and dated 5000–4000 B.C.) and Middle Neolithic potsherds found in a debris pit on the Acropolis south slope, behind the Stoa of Eumenes II.
84. For the Bronze Age Acropolis, see Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 70–84; Pantelidou, Άι Προϊστορικάι Αθήναι, 247–48. At least five Middle Helladic graves (ca. 2050/2000–1550 B.C.) for children have been found on the Acropolis, and one house dating to the Late Helladic I period.
85. M. Higgins and R. Higgins, A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996), 27–29; Parsons, “Klepsydra,” 205; R. Lepsius, Geologie von Attika (Berlin: D. Reimer, 1893), 6, 53, plate 1, profile 1; W. Judeich, Topographie von Athen (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1931), 43ff., figs. 6–7; Mountjoy, Mycenaean Athens, fig. 14; Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 6–8.
86. The palace is usually dated to the Late Helladic IIIB period but could be as early as Late Helladic IIIA. See Mountjoy, Mycenaean Athens, 22–24, 41–43; Iakovidis, Late Helladic Citadels on Mainland Greece, 75, 77–79; Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 57; Camp, Athenian Agora, 101–2; Iakovidis, Mycenaean Acropolis, 113–1i4.
87. See Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 52–55, 91, figs. 67, 71; Camp, “Water and the Pelargikon”; Mountjoy, Mycenaean Athens, 40–41; Iakovidis, Mycenaean Acropolis, 197–221.
88. Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 2.17.1; Aristophanes, Birds 832; and an inscription from Eleusis of fifth-century date (CIA IV.2, 27.6; BCH 4 [1903]: 225, pl. 15) refer to the “Pelargikon walls.” See Harrison, Primitive Athens as Described by Thucydides, 25–36; Harrison, Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, 2:537. Herodotos, Histories 6.137.1 (quoting Hekataios); the Parian Chronicle, line 60; and Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.28.3, speak of the “Pelasgian Wall.” (The Parian Chronicle says that the Athenians expelled the sons of Peisistratos from the “Pelasgikon teichos.”) For the Pelasgians, see R. L. Fowler, “Pelasgians,” in Poetry, Theory, Praxis, ed. E. Csapo and M. Miller (Oxford: Oxbow, 2003), 2–18; Kretschmer, “Pelasger und Etrusker”; J. L. Myers, “A History of the Pelasgian Theory,” JHS 27 (1907): 170–225; W. Miller, “A History of the Archaeology of Athens,” AJA (1893): 485–504; and G. Smoot, “Poetics of Ethnicity in the Homeric Iliad,” who argues on the basis of Herodotos and linguistic evidence that the Pelasgians, a population of non-Greek-speaking (or perhaps bilingual) people, may have survived at Athens and elsewhere into the eighth century and even later.
89. First explored by Kavvadias, then by O. Broneer, “A Mycenaean Fountain House on the Athenian Acropolis,” Hesperia 8 (1939): 317–433; Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 72–75; Mountjoy, Mycenaean Athens, 43–44; Iakovidis, Mycenaean Acropolis, 140–44, 239–43; for overview, see Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 78–79.
90. Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 72–78.
91. Ibid., 323–31; Kavvadias and Giannikapani, North, East, and West Slopes, 13–18; Parsons, “Klepsydra,” 203; Larson, Greek Nymphs, 129.
92. E. Smithson, “The Prehistoric Klepsydra: Some Notes,” in Studies in Athenian Architecture and Topography Presented to Homer A. Thompson, 143–54.
93. IG I3 1063; 475–450 B.C. (SEG 10.357); Parsons, “Klepsydra,” 205; Larson, Greek Nymphs, 126; B. D. Meritt, “Greek Inscriptions,” Hesperia 10 (1941): 38, no. 3.
94. The seventeenth-century antiquarians James Stuart and Nicholas Revett identified the spring with the Klepsydra fountain. They cited the observation of the fifth-century A.D. grammarian Hesychios that the Klepsydra was once sacred to the nymph Empedo. See Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of Athens, vol. 1, pp. 15–16; Hesychios, app., Test. VI A; cf. VI B and IV.
95. Camp, “Water and the Pelargikon,” describes how preexisting wells in the area were filled up and put out of use during the late sixth and early fifth centuries. See also Glowacki, “North Slope,” 75.
96.IG II2 2639.
97. Kavvadias and Giannikapani, North, East, and West Slopes; Glowacki, “North Slope”; Pierce, “Sacred Caves,” 54; Goette, Athens, Attica, and the Megarid, 54–55.
98. Pierce, “Sacred Caves,” 44; Wickens, “Archaeology and History of Cave Use.”
99. Euripides, Ion 10–45, 492–95.
100. Ibid., 52–55.
101. Pausanias, Description of Greece 7.24.5; Strabo, Geography 8.7.2.
102. First excavated by George Kavvadias in 1896–1897. G. Kavvadias, “Topographika Athinon kata tas peri tin Akroplin anaskaphas,” ArchEph 2 (1897): 1–32; Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 91–95; Glowacki, “North Slope,” 79–90; Wickens, “Archaeology and History of Cave Use,” 2:366–67; C. Tsakos, “Sanctuaries and Cults on the Hill of the Acropolis,” in Koutsadelis, Dialogues on the Acropolis, 166–81.
103. Forty stone plaques, once fixed in these niches, have been recovered and date from the mid-first to the third century A.D. They are inscribed to Apollo Hypo Makrais by Athenian magistrates (archons) and secretaries (grammateis). See P. E. Nulton, The Sanctuary of Apollo Hypoakraios and Imperial Athens (Providence, R.I.: Center for Old World Archaeology and Art, Brown University, 2003).
104. Strabo, Geography 9.2.11. Put forward by A. D. Keramopoulos in “Ύπό τα Προπύλαια της Άκροπόλεως,” ArchDelt 12 (1929): 98–101, but refuted by R. E. Wycherley, “Two Athenian Shrines,” AJA 63 (1959): 68–72; R. E. Wycherley, “The Pythion at Athens: Thucydides II,15,4; Philostratos, Lives of the Sophists II,1,7,” AJA 67 (1963): 75–79; J. Tobin, “Some New Thoughts on Herodes Atticus’s Tomb, His Stadium of 143/4, and Philostratus VS 2.550,” AJA 97 (1993): 87–88; Glowacki, “North Slope.”
105. Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 417–21; Borgeaud, Cult of Pan; C. M. Edwards, “Greek Votive Reliefs to Pan and the Nymphs” (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1985).
106. Wickens, “Archaeology and History of Cave Use”; Pierce, “Sacred Caves”; Borgeaud, Cult of Pan.
107. Olympiadoros, Life of Plato 1, and the author of the Anonymous Prolegomena tell how Plato’s parents laid their infant down near the cave of Pan on Mount Hymettos. Cicero, Concerning Divination 1.36, and Aelian, Historical Miscellany 12.45, tell how a swarm of bees gathered on the baby Plato’s lips. Of course, Plato’s given name and the name by which he was called as a child was Aristokles.
108. I thank Anton Bierl for his translation given here.
109. IG I3 1382 (SEG 10.27/324) dating to the mid-fifth century says the festival of Eros took place on fourth day of Mounichion. The site was excavated by Kavvadias in the late nineteenth century and by Oscar Broneer from 1931 to 1934 and from 1937 to 1939. Among the finds were a krater by Exekias and many ostraka naming Themistokles, dating to 472/1 B.C. See Broneer, “Eros and Aphrodite on the North Slope,” 31–55; Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 228–32; Glowacki, “North Slope,” 46–64; R. Rosenzweig, Worshipping Aphrodite, 35–40.
110. Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.27.3, as identified by Broneer, “Eros and Aphrodite on the North Slope,” 43. But others place the sanctuary of Aphrodite in the Gardens on the banks of the Ilissos River; see Rosenzweig, Worshipping Aphrodite.
111. See K. Glowacki and S. Rotroff, “The ‘Skyphos Sanctuary’ from the North Slope of the Acropolis,” Archaeological Institute of America 106th Annual Meeting Abstract, Boston 2005, AJA (2005): session 3G (abstract), http://aia.archaeological.org/webinfo.php?page=10248&searchtype=abstract&ytable=2005&sessionid=3G&paperid=146; Glowacki, “North Slope,” 65–78.
112. O. Broneer and M. Z. Pease, “The Cave on the East Slope of the Acropolis,” Hesperia 5 (1936): 247, 250. Broneer says t
he cave was mostly empty (250); M. Z. Pease was able to match some sherds found within it to fragments from atop the Acropolis.
113. Dontas, “True Aglaurion.” Ancient sources for Aglauros’s sanctuary include Herodotos, Histories 8.53.2; Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.18.2; Polyainos, Strategies 1.21.2. See Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 101, 136, 204, fig. 8; G. C. R. Schmalz, “The Athenian Prytaneion Discovered?,” Hesperia 75 (2006): 33–81; N. Oikonomides, “The Athenian Cults of the Three Aglauroi and Their Sanctuaries Below the Acropolis at Athens,” AncWorld 21 (1990): 11–17.
114. A. Chaniotis, H. W. Pleket, R. S. Stroud, and J. H. M. Strubbe, “Athens: Decree in Honor of Timokrite, Priestess of Aglauros, 247/6 or 246/5 B.C.,” SEG 46. 137 (1996).
115. Translation: Godley, Herodotus: Histories, 49, with minor changes.
116. Siewert, “Ephebic Oath.”
117. Translation: Godley, Herodotus: Histories, 49, with minor changes.
118. Scholion on Demosthenes, On False Embassy 303, 328; FGrH 105.
119. Kavvadias and Giannikapani, South Slope, 1–2; Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 67–68; Goette, Athens, Attica, and the Megarid, 47–54.
120. T. Papathanasopoulos, The Sanctuary and Theater of Dionysos: Monuments on the South Slope of the Acropolis (Athens: Kardamitsa, 1995); L. Polacco, Il teatro di Dioniso Eleutereo ad Atene (Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1990); Kavvadias and Giannikapani, South Slope, 20–24.
121. Meineck, “Embodied Space,” 3.
122. T. Papathanasopoulos, “Το Ωδείο του Περικλή” (Ph.D. diss., University of Rethymnon, 1999); Kavvadias and Giannikapani, South Slope, 24; Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 216–17.
123. Kavvadias and Giannikapani, South Slope, 23; R. E. Townsend, “A Recently Discovered Capital from the Thrasyllos Monument,” AJA 89 (1985): 676–80; G. Welter, “Das choregische Denkmal des Thrasyllos,” AA (1938): 33–68.
124. J. Freely, Strolling Through Athens, Fourteen Unforgettable Walks (London: Tauris Parke, 2004), 41–42. For a photograph of the shrine with icons and offerings, see K. Glowacki, http://www.stoa.org/athens/sites/southslope/index5.html, photo: P17088.JPG.
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