September 3, 1777—The American flag known as the “Stars and Stripes” flies in battle for the first time, at Cooch’s Bridge in Maryland.
July 6, 1785—The dollar is chosen as the American monetary unit—the first time a government selects a decimal-based currency system.
September 17, 1787—The U.S. Constitution is completed; it will be officially adopted on March 4, 1789.
BETSY’S RIVER ADVENTURE: THE JOURNEY WESTWARD VOCABULARY WORDS
aplomb—self-confidence
With all the aplomb she had, a muddy Betsy walked tall and regally toward the street that lined the river.
badger—to annoy or tease
“I don’t want to go. I don’t want to be constantly badgered by George. He delights in embarrassing me.”
cajole—persuade or coax with flattery
Betsy watched him cajole and plead with Jefferson, but it did no good.
canter—a smooth, gentle run Betsy let Silverstreak canter.
contraption—a strange object or machine
Johnny dropped a wooden contraption, which Betsy guessed was supposed to be a miniature flatboat, into the river.
foundries—workshops for casting metal
Boats, of course, but there are a lot of foundries for ironwork, too.
impetuous—acting without thinking
“He’s impetuous and doesn’t always think before he blurts out something.”
impress—to take control of for public service
Hundreds of American young men had been impressed, as they called it.
melancholy—sad or depressed
Time passed slowly, and she felt herself slipping back into that melancholy mood again.
mercantile—a store or market
They paused to glance inside the brick
mercantile stores that lined the streets.
rambunctious—full of energy and uncontrolled enthusiasm
Surely he wouldn’t have been the rambunctious type like George, whose curiosity and eagerness were always making him the center of attention.
recitation—reading or repeating out loud, especially publicly
His recitation sounded as if it were his side of a discussion that had been held earlier.
satchel—a small bag that usually has a shoulder strap The driver came out of the stagecoach office with a satchel.
schooner—a type of ship with two or more masts
“We’ve booked passage on the schooner Columbia from Boston Harbor and up the Delaware River to Philadelphia.”
shanties—crudely built huts or shelters, usually made of wood Clotheslines sagging with laundry were strung between the shanties.
skiff—a type of small rowboat
They climbed back into the skiff, and Marley rowed them to the flatboat.
solace—comfort in the midst of distress or disappointment
She found solace in her music, and she prayed that she would find a happy life in Cincinnati.
stillborn—dead at birth
Betsy’s three stillborn brothers had been buried in the churchyard.
swindler—a cheater
“I’ve heard there are many swindlers who sell boats that use inferior wood or who don’t caulk the joints correctly.”
tack—to change a ship’s course by turning its head to the wind
Father had told her they would tack many times, or they would go too far out to sea.
valise—a small suitcase or traveling bag
She doubted she could get it into George’s valise without someone seeing her.
IMPORTANT PEOPLE AND THINGS AROUND 1808
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States. He was born on April 13, 1743, in Virginia, where he inherited his family’s estate at the age of fourteen. He graduated from William and Mary College in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1762, and then became a lawyer. Jefferson became involved in politics and was active in the events that led to the American Revolution. In 1776, he wrote the Declaration of Independence, his best known work. He became President of the United States in 1801, during which he sponsored the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore the West and made the famous Louisiana Purchase, buying the huge territory between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains that greatly expanded the United States. His work as president also included the Embargo Act. After his term as chief executive, Thomas Jefferson returned to his famous home at Monticello and pursued his interests in music, architecture, science, religion, philosophy, law, and education, founding the University of Virginia in 1825. Thomas Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, exactly fifty years after the adoption of his Declaration of Independence.
Aaron Burr
Aaron Burr was Vice President of the United States from 1801–1805 under President Thomas Jefferson. He was born in Newark, New Jersey, on February 6, 1756, and went on to graduate from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). From 1775–1779, he fought with the colonial army in the Revolutionary War. In 1782, he became a lawyer and then involved himself in politics, holding offices in the New York state legislature and as attorney general. He later served in the U.S. Senate and as vice president. Burr ran for governor of New York in 1804 against Alexander Hamilton, but lost. Later, Burr took part in a famous duel with his political opponent; Burr shot and killed Hamilton but was never arrested for murder. After his term as vice president, Burr was involved in many questionable activities including a possible plot to take over the southwestern frontier of the United States. After being found not guilty of treason, Burr traveled in Europe for several years, then came back to the United States to practice law again. Burr died on September 14, 1836.
The Embargo Act
The Embargo Act was a law proposed by Thomas Jefferson and passed by the United States Congress in 1807. This law stopped all ships from entering or leaving American ports, to force Britain and France, which were fighting the Napoleonic Wars, to respect the United States’ decision to remain neutral. This law also helped stop the British from impressing, or kidnapping, American sailors to serve in the British navy. Unfortunately, it also put many Americans out of business and out of work because all trade between the countries was halted. The U.S. economy was badly hurt, forcing many people to start new lives in America’s frontier areas, like Cincinnati, Ohio. The Embargo Act lasted only fourteen months.
HISTORY IN PERSPECTIVE TIMELINE
September 3, 1783—The Treaty of Paris ends the American Revolution, and Great Britain recognizes the United States of America as an independent nation.
1793—American inventor Eli Whitney creates the cotton gin.
November 9, 1799—Napoleon Bonaparte takes control of France.
1799–1815—The Napoleonic Wars are fought between France and other European nations.
March 4, 1801—Thomas Jefferson is inaugurated as President of the United States.
March 1, 1803—Ohio becomes the seventeenth state.
July 11, 1804—Alexander Hamilton is killed in a duel with Aaron Burr. December 1807—The Embargo Act is passed by Congress.
1812–1815—The War of 1812 is fought between the United States and Great Britain.
1816—German inventor Karl D. Sauerbronn invents the bicycle.
1830—The first railroads are opened in England and the United States.
GRACE AND THE BULLY: DROUGHT ON THE FRONTIER VOCABULARY WORDS
balustrade—a row of repeating posts that support the upper part of a railing as on a staircase or porch
Halfway up the stairs, she hung out over the balustrade to gaze again at the empty space on the carpet where the piano would be placed.
buckboard—a four-wheeled vehicle with a floor made of long, springy boards
The buckboard had two sets of seats up front with a long bed in back and high sideboards.
chandler—a maker or seller of wax candles
At least the packinghouses would be busy, which meant the tanners and the chandlers and soap m
akers would soon have work.
commencement—the ceremony for giving out academic degrees or diplomas “Mama,” she said, “you’ll never guess what—I’m going to sing at the school commencement exercises!”
dandy—a man who gives extra special attention to his looks
“Dapper Drew! Dresses up in pretty clothes! Looks like a dandy!” Raggy called out in a singsong voice.
dapper—neat and trim in appearance; very stylish
He wasn’t a dapper Boston dandy anymore.
delicacy—something pleasing to eat that is considered rare or rich
There were delicacies there, such as his mother’s rhubarb pies, which he doubted he’d ever taste again.
dillydally—to waste time by hanging around or lagging behind “See that you are,” Mama answered. “Don’t dillydally.”
ecstatic—extremely excited
A summer feast! Grace was ecstatic.
exuberance—extreme joy and enthusiasm
“Please, Lavina,” Samantha said, “don’t apologize. We love Grace’s exuberance.”
indigent—very poor
“Papa says the city voted to pay the way for a few indigent children to attend as well as those of us who can pay the subscription to go to school.”
jig—a lively, springy dance
Grace rolled up the carpet and danced a jig as she’d seen the swarthy boatmen do.
keelboat—shallow-covered riverboat that is usually rowed, poled, or towed and that is used for freight
Sure enough, three keelboats were at the landing.
larder—a place to store food
With the new stock of foodstuffs in the larder, Papa was sure they could make it through until things turned around, which he believed would be very soon.
mercantile—a type of market or store
The heavy door of the mercantile was propped open, but the fresh spring air couldn’t soften the strong mixtures of aromas inside the store.
petrified—very afraid
“If I had to stand before the entire city to sing, I’d be petrified,” Amy said.
ruddy—having a healthy reddish color
Where he used to be pale and wan, he was now ruddy and sunburned.
ruffian—a rough person, a bully
“Why do they allow ruffians like him to attend our school?” Drew wanted to know.
schooner—a large type of sailboat with several sails
The shape was that of a sleek cod-fishing
schooner such as those docked in Boston Harbor.
stanchion—a device that fits loosely around the neck of an animal so that it can’t move too far backward or forward
Drew lifted the tether out of the ground, and they led the goat to the stanchion.
stern-wheeler—a steamboat driven by a single paddle wheel at the stern
Drew stopped beside her to study the river. “Why is the stern-wheeler out so far?” he asked.
stevedores—one who works at or is responsible for loading and unloading ships in port Then Grace watched as the stevedores guided the crane that lifted the crate containing her piano.
tanner—someone whose job is to make animal skin into leather
When Carter had first arrived in Cincinnati, he’d worked at the boatworks for a short time but then decided to go out on his own as a tanner.
watchman—a person who keeps watch or guards
“Give that back,” Grace demanded. “That’s my mama’s cloth. I’ll call the watchman on you.”
IMPORTANT PEOPLE AND THINGS AROUND 1819
Arthur St. Clair
The United States Congress appointed Arthur St. Clair, a general in the Revolutionary War, as first governor of the Northwest Territory, which included present-day Ohio. On January 2, 1790, St. Clair made an important visit to a settlement called Losantiville. He did not like the name Losantiville, so he ordered it replaced with the name Cincinnati, in honor of the Society of the Cincinnati, an association of former officers of the Continental Army, of which St. Clair was a member. Thus, St. Clair is credited with naming the modern-day city of Cincinnati.
The Stites Party
In November of 1788 a party of twenty-six men, women and children, led by Benjamin Stites, established a settlement called Columbia inside the present-day city limits of Cincinnati. The members of the Stites party are known as the very first settlers of the city of Cincinnati.
The Panic and the Banking Crisis of 1819
In 1819, the United States’ economy was in a serious economic downturn. This event was known as the Panic of 1819. It partly resulted from the Bank of the United States, as well as state and local banks, extending credit to too many people. Mostly, these people used the loans to purchase federal land in the American West. As the economic downturn got worse, the Bank of the United States continued to demand repayment for loans. The various banks’ actions resulted in the Banking Crisis of 1819.
The Panic of 1819 and the Banking Crisis left many Ohioans destitute, or extremely poor. Thousands of people lost their land because they couldn’t pay off their loans. United States factory owners also had a difficult time competing with earlier-established factories in Europe. Many American people could not afford the factories’ goods. The United States did not fully recover from the Banking Crisis and the Panic of 1819 until the mid 1820s.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882) was a famous American poet, one of the most popular of his time. He is well-known for his poem “Paul Revere’s Ride.” Though many proud citizens of Cincinnati were calling their home “The Queen City” or “The Queen of the West” as early as 1819, Longfellow helped make the nicknames official with his poem “Catawba Wine” in 1854.
HISTORY IN PERSPECTIVE TIMELINE
March 1, 1803—Ohio becomes the 17th state in the United States of America.
1804–1806—Captain Meriwether Lewis and Second Lieutenant William Clark, of the U.S. Army, lead the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore the American Northwest.
1812—Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm publish a collection of authentic German fairy tales.
1812–1815—The War of 1812 is fought between the Unites States and the British Empire.
September 13, 1814—Francis Scott Key composes The Star-Spangled Banner, which later becomes the national anthem of the United States.
1816—The American Bible Society is founded with a goal to put a Bible in every American home.
1816—A German man named Karl von Drais creates the first model of a modern bicycle. 1819—Cincinnati becomes a city.
March 6, 1820—President James Monroe signs the Missouri Compromise to regulate slavery in the western territories.
1826—The first photograph is taken by French inventor Nicéphore Niépce.
February 18, 1827—The Baltimore and Ohio (B & O) Railroad becomes the first U.S. railway chartered for commercial transportation of freight and passengers.
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