6 Rawson (2003), pp.153–157.
7 Cicero, Brutus 138–145, 296, Orator 18, 132; Antonius’ refusal to write down his speeches, Cicero, pro Cluentio 140.
8 Plutarch, Antony 2, 4.
9 On the expulsions from the Senate in 70 BC see T. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. 2 (1952), pp.126–127.
10 For the importance of the Liberalia festival see Ovid, Fasti 3. 771–788; on the sacrifice to Iuventus see Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4. 15. 5; on the ceremonies associated with adopting the toga virilis in general see Rawson (2003), pp.142–144.
11 Cicero, pro Caelio 28–30. Even if Cicero exaggerates, he clearly expected his audience to have some sympathy with this view.
12 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 12. 1–2 (Loeb translation).
13 Cicero, In Catilinam 2. 22 (Loeb translation by C. Mac Donald (1977), p. 91); Hercules, see Plutarch, Antony 4. On the Julii’s descent from Venus see Velleius Paterculus 2. 41. 1, and Suetonius, Caesar 6. 1; for Caesar’s style see Suetonius, Caesar 45. 3.
14 Plutarch, Antony 2.
15 Plutarch, Pompey 2.
16 P. Grimal, Love in Ancient Rome (1986), pp.112–115 and 226–237, and S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991), esp. pp.105–106, 232–238, 253–261, 264, 270–275 and 299–319.
17 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 25.
18 Suetonius, Caesar 47, 50. 1–52.
19 Cicero, Philippics 2. 44.
20 Cicero, Philippics 2. 45 –46, Plutarch, Antony 2.
21 See Sallust, Bell. Cat. 23. 5–24. 1. For Cicero’s career and election to the consulship see E. Rawson, Cicero (1975), T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Ascending Years (1979), esp. pp.93ff., and D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), esp. pp.71–81; for attitudes to Antonius, see Plutarch, Cicero 11.
22 For Catiline see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 15. 1–5, with E. Salmon, ‘Catiline, Crassus, and Caesar’, American Journal of Philology 56 (1935), pp.302–316, esp. 302–306; E. Hardy, The Catilinarian Conspiracy in its Context: A Re-study of the Evidence (1924), pp.12–20;T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, Vol. 1 (1928), pp.234–235.
23 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 14. 1–7, 16. 1–4.
24 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59. 3.
25 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 31. 4–48. 2, Rice Holmes (1928), pp.259–272, Stockton (1971), pp.84–109.
26 Plutarch, Antony 2; on the provinces see Cicero, In Pisonem 5, cf. Pro Sestio.8.
27 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59. 4; see also E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp.287–289.
28 Cicero, Philippics 2. 3–4.
29 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 19.
30 On Clodius see Plutarch, Antony 2, Cicero, Philippics 2. 48, with W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999), esp. pp.70 and 235–236, A. Lintott, ‘P. Clodius Pulcher — Felix Catilina’, Greece and Rome 14 (1967), pp.157–169, W Rundell, ‘Cicero and Clodius: The Question of Credibility’, Historia 28 (1979), pp.301–328, and E. Gruen, ‘P. Clodius: Instrument or Independent Agent?’, Phoenix 20 (1966), pp.120–130.
VII THE RETURN OF THE KING
1 Dio 39. 12. 1–3, Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 11, with P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.649–650, and M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.16–19.
2 Plutarch, Cato the Younger 6, 35–36; Sallust, Bell. Jug. 35. 10 for quote; for Cicero’s comment about Cato see Cicero, ad Att. 2. 1.
3 Dio 39. 13. 1–14. 4, Cicero, pro Caelio 23–24, with E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp.305–309.
4 R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.111–112, Plutarch, Pompey 49, Cicero, ad Fam. 1. 1–8.
5 Dio 39. 57. 1–2, Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. II; see also M. Siani-Davies, ‘Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans’, Historia 46 (1997), pp.306–340, esp. 323–327, Green (1990), pp.650–652, and G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.225–229.
6 See E. Badian, ‘The Early Career of A. Gabinius (cos. 58 BC)’, Philologus 103 (1958), pp.87–99.
7 Plutarch, Antony 3, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.120–122.
8 Josephus, BJ 1. 160–178, AJ 14. 27–104, with E. Sch¨rer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.233–242 and 267– 269.
9 Plutarch, Antony 3, Dio 39. 57. 2–58. 3, Cicero, Philippics 2. 48, pro Rabirio Postumo 19–20, with A. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East 168 BC to AD 1 (1984), pp.271–279 for more detail.
10 Appian, BC 5. 8.
11 Plutarch, Antony 4, with Pelling (1988), pp.123–126; on Gabinius see Gruen (1974), pp.322–331.
VIII CANDIDATE
1 Dio 39. 59. 160. 4, 62. 1–63. 5, R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.123–125 and 128–130, E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp.323–327.
2 Plutarch, Crassus 16, Dio 39. 39. 3–8, with T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, Vol. 2 (1923), pp.147–148.
3 For a summary of the campaign see T. Wiseman in CAH2 IX, pp.402–403.
4 Cicero, Philippics 2. 48; Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 3. 1. 15 for Gabinius’ arrival in Rome.
5 Caesar, BG 7. 65; for a discussion of Caesar’s legates see Gruen (1974), pp.114–118.
6 Pliny, NH 7. 92, Suetonius, Caesar 54, 71, Plutarch, Caesar 17.
7 Caesar first refers to Antony as a legate in Caesar, BG 7. 31, but in BG 8. 2 and subsequently he is a quaestor.
8 For officers in Gaul see K. Welch, ‘Caesar and his Officers in the Gallic War Commentaries’, in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp.85–110; on the public thanksgiving see Caesar, BG 4. 38, Dio 39. 53. 1–2, and on the expedition in general see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.278–292.
9 For a narrative of these operations see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.293–314.
10 Cicero, Philippics 2. 49 on Caesar’s support for his candidature.
11 Cicero, Philippics 2. 21, 49.
12 On the death of Clodius see Wiseman in CAH2 IX, pp.405–408, Rice Holmes (1923), pp.164–167.
13 Seager (2002), pp.133–139.
14 For discussions of elections see L. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949), esp. pp.50–75, and Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar (1966), esp. pp.78–106, A. Lintott, ‘Electoral Bribery in the Roman Republic’, JRS 80 (1990), pp.1–16, F. Millar, The Crowd in the Late Roman Republic (1998), H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001), esp. pp.63–89, and A. Yakobson, ‘Petitio et Largitio: Popular Participation in the Centuriate Assembly of the Late Republic’, JRS 8 (1992), pp.32–52.
15 Cicero, Philippics 2. 50, ad Att. 6. 6. 4, 7. 8. 5, ad Fam. 2. 15. 4; for an account of the rebellion of 53–52 BC see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.315–342; on favours shown to Vercingetorix by Caesar see Dio 40. 41. 1, 3.
16 Antony did not leave Rome until after Milo’s trial, see Asconius 41 C; on Lucius Caesar as Legate in Transalpine Gaul see Caesar, BG 7. 65.
17 Caesar, BG 7. 81.
18 Caesar, BG 8. 2; for an account of these operations see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.343–353.
19 Caesar, BG 8. 24, 38.
20 Caesar, BG 8. 46–48;cf.8. 23 for the murder attempt against him.
IX ‘THE NEW SIBLING-LOVING GODS’
1 Caesar, BC 1. 4.
2 Caesar, BC 3. 110, Valerius Maximus 4. 1. 15, Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 34.
3 Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 20, 34; Plutarch, Pompey 78. For Italians/Romans serving with the armies of client kings, examples include Rufus and Gratus commanding parts of Herod the Great’sarmy in 4 BC, see Josephus, BJ 2. 52, 58, 63, with E. Sch¨rer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.362–364.
4 Caesar, BC 3. 110; on legionary pay see Suetonius, Caesar 26, with discussion in G. Watson, The Roman Soldier (1969), pp.89–91; see also M
. Siani-Davies, ‘Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans’, Historia 46 (1997), pp.306–340, esp. 338–339.
5 Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 4–7, 19–29.
6 Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 38–42; on the royal bureaucracy in general see D. Rathbone, ‘Ptolemaic to Roman Egypt: The Death of the Dirigiste State?’, in E. Lo Cascio & D. Rathbone (eds.), Production and Public Powers in Classical Antiquity (2000), pp.44–54, M. Chauveau, Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra (trans. D. Lorton) (2000), pp.72–95, and J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.157–205.
7 P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.156–158, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), p. 81; on the Pharos see P. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, Vol. 1 (1972), pp.17–20.
8 Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 9–10, Chauveau (2000), pp.61–62.
9 Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 8, J. Ray,’ Alexandria’, in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), pp.32–37, and G. Grimm, ‘Alexandria in the Time of Cleopatra’, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.45–49; on the Museum and Greek culture see also H. Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and Cultural Identity’, in A. Hirst & M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria, Real and Imagined (2004), pp.1–14.
10 Green (1990), pp.317–318.
11 For Alexandria in general see Fraser (1972), passim, A. Bernard, Alexandrie la Grande (1998), and Alexandrie des Ptolémees (1995), G. Grimm, Alexandria: Die erste Königsstadt der hellenistischen Welt (1998), N. Finneran, Alexandria: A City and Myth (2005), pp.9–88, J-Y. Empereur, Alexandria Rediscovered (1998), F. Goddio, L’Egypte Engloutie: Alexandrie (2002), F. Goddio, with A. Bernard, E. Bernard, 1. Darwish, Z. Kiss & J. Yoyotte, Alexandria: The Submerged Royal Quarters (1998), and Chauveau (2000), pp.100–134.
12 In general see D. Thompson, Memphis under the Ptolemies (1988), esp. pp.3–31, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.271–293.
13 M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), p. 20, citing CIG 4926, Hölbl (2001), pp.222–223, Green (1990), pp.649–650.
14 Caesar, BC 3. 108.
15 Hölbl (2001), p. 230, and Bingen (2007), p. 66; the expression occurs in the inscription OGIS 2. 741 dated to 31 May 52 BC.
16 Bingen (2007), pp.67–68.
17 Bingen (2007), pp.66–67.
18 On her appearance see Grant (1972), pp.65–67, E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999), pp.95–102, Walker & Higgs (2001), esp. S. Walker, ‘Cleopatra’s Images: Reflections of Reality’, pp.142–147, and G. Goudchaux, ‘Was Cleopatra Beautiful? The Conflicting Answers of Numismatics’, pp.210–214, and also in Walker & Ashton (2003), esp. S. Walker, ‘Cleopatra VII at the Louvre’, pp.71–74, and F. Johansen, ‘Portraits of Cleopatra — Do They Exist?’, pp.75–77.
19 Dio 42. 34. 3–5 (Loeb translation by E. Cary (1916), p. 169); Plutarch, Antony 27 (Oxford translation by R. Waterfield).
20 Lucan, Pharsalia 10. 127–143; Candida Sidonio perlucent pectora filo, quod Nilotis acus impressum pectine serum, solvit et extenso laxavit stamina velo, 10. 140–142.
21 These were Cleopatra: Portrait of a Killer (Lion TV) shown on BBC television in the UK, and an episode on Cleopatra from the series Egypt Unwrapped (Atlantic TV) shown on Channel 5 in the UK.
22 See J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), p. 87, and Walker & Higgs (2001), pp.314–315, n. 325.
X TRIBUNE
1 Caesar, BG 8. 50.
2 Cicero, De Divinatione 1. 30–33, 2. 70–83.
3 E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp.484–485 on this election; in generalsee A. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic(1999), pp.182– 190.
4 See Lintott (1999), pp.121–128.
5 Broughton, MRR 2, pp.258–259; Caesar, BG 8. 50.
6 On the fears surrounding the return of Pompey in 62 BC see R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.74–79; on the wider story of the years building up to the civil war in 49 BC see M. Gelzer, Caesar (trans. P. Needham) (1968), pp.169–194, C. Meier, Caesar (trans. D. Mc Lintock) (1996), pp.330–348, and A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), p. 358–379 for fuller accounts with references.
7 On the virtues of Cornelia see Plutarch, Pompey 55.
8 Suetonius, Caesar 30. 3.
9 On Crassus and the reluctance of anyone to prosecute him see the discussion in A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), p. 78, cf. Plutarch, Crassus 7.
10 Caelius’ quote from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 8. 9.
11 Suetonius, Caesar 29. 1, Plutarch, Caesar 29, Pompey 58, Dio 40. 60. 2–3, Appian, BC 2. 26, Valerius Maximus 9. 1. 6, Velleius Paterculus 2. 48. 4; on revolving theatres see Pliny, NH 36. 177; on Caelius’ belief in Curio’s planned opposition to Caesar see Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 8. 10, moderated at 8. 10. 4.
12 Quotation from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 11. 3; for the earlier debate see Velleius 2. 48. 2–3, Plutarch, Pompey 57, Caesar 30, Cato the Younger 51, and Dio 40. 62. 3; for discussion see Seager (2002), p. 144, and Gelzer (1968), pp.178–181.
13 Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 11. 1.
14 Appian, BC 2. 28, with a slightly different version in Plutarch, Pompey 58, cf. Dio 60. 64. 1–4.
15 Caesar, BC 1. 1–4.
16 Cicero, ad Fam. 16. 11. 2, ad Att. 8. 11d.
17 On Antony’s appearance and style of oratory see Plutarch, Antony 2, 4; on Pompey’s comments and Cicero’s reaction see Cicero, ad Att. 7. 8, where he specifically refers to Antony as a quaestor and not as tribune, and also ad Fam. 16. 11. 3; on Antony vomiting his words see Cicero, ad Fam. 12. 2.
18 Caesar, BC 1. 5, Dio 41. 1. 1–3. 4, Appian, BC 2. 32–33.
19 For a more detailed discussion of the crossing of the Rubicon see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.377–379, and for the ancient sources see Suetonius, Caesar 31–32, Plutarch, Caesar 32, and Appian, BC 2. 35; Suetonius, Caesar 30. 4 for the quotation.
20 Caesar, BC 1. 8, Appian, BC 2. 33.
21 Cicero, Philippics 2. 22, cf. Plutarch, Antony 6, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.130–131.
22 Caesar, BC 1. 11; for a more detailed account of the Italian campaign see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.385–391.
23 Cicero, ad Att. 9. 7C.
24 Caesar, BC 1. 8.
25 Quote from Cicero, ad Att. 9. 10. 2.
26 Caesar, BC 1. 32–33, Dio 41. 15. 1–16. 4 for the meeting of the Senate; Caesar, BC 1. 32–33, Dio 41. 17. 1–3, Appian, BC 2. 41, Plutarch, Caesar 35, Pliny, NH 33. 56 and Orosius 6. 15. 5 for the confrontation with the tribune; for a more detailed account see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.391–397.
27 Cicero, ad Att. 10. 4.
28 Cicero, ad Att. 10. 8A, Philippics 2. 56–58, and Broughton MRR 2, p. 260 for full references.
XI QUEEN
1 M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), p. 54, and G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.231–232.
2 J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.66–68, and J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.39–46.
3 See W. Tarn, ‘The Bucheum Stelae: A Note’, JRS 26 (1936), pp.187–189 for the quotation, and the beliefthat Cleopatra was present; Tyldesley (2009), p. 41–42, expresses a measure of doubt over Cleopatra’s actual participation, while Grant (1972), pp.46–47, and J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.88–91, accept her actual involvement in the ceremonies.
4 See G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra’s Subtle Religious Strategy,’ in S. Walker & P. Higgs, Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), pp.132–133.
5 ‘She was indeed queen of Egypt’ quote from D. Thompson in CAH2 IX, p. 321, who also accepts Cleopatra’s presence at the enthronement of the Buchis bull.
6 Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 8. 20.
7 Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 2; for discussion of this see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.164–175.
8 Valeriu
s Maximus 4. 1. 15 (Loeb translation by D. Shackleton Bailey), and cf. Caesar, BC 3. 110. Central control of the Roman army in this period was often weak. When Cicero took over in Cilicia he discovered that three cohorts out of his two legions were missing, and it was some time before they were located and brought back under control, see Cicero, ad Fam. 3. 6. 5.
9 Translation from Select Papyri: Volume II Official documents (Loeb translation by A. Hunt & C. Edgar, 1974), pp.57–58.
10 Bingen (2007), pp.69–70, Grant (1972), pp.49–51, Hölbl (2001), p. 231, and D. Thompson, ‘Cleopatra VII: The Queen in Egypt’, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.31–34, esp. 32.
11 Caesar, BC 3. 4–5; the Egyptian ships seem to have remained under Cnaeus Pompey’s command, Caesar, BC 3. 40.
12 Plutarch, Antony 25, and Lucan, Pharsalia 5. 58–64, with Grant (1972), pp.51–52, and Hölbl (2001), p. 232.
13 Malalas 9. 279, Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 11, Appian, BC 2. 84.
14 See Walker & Higgs (2001), p. 234.
15 Caesar, BC 3. 110.
16 Caesar, BC 3. 103–104, Plutarch, Pompey 77, Appian, BC 84.
XII CIVIL WAR
1 Plutarch, Pompey 63–4.
2 For the campaign in Sicily and Africa, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 53. 1–3, Caesar, BC 2. 23–44.
3 For Caesar’s followers a ‘rabble’see Cicero, ad Att. 9. 18; for Cicero’s accusation that Antony did nothing to aid Caius Antonius’ recall from exile see Cicero, Philippics 2. 56.
4 On the allegiance of consulars see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.61–62; Suetonius, Caesar 72, on rewarding even bandits if they were faithful to him.
5 Cicero, Philippics 2. 58.
6 Cicero, ad Att. 10. 10; see also Plutarch, Antony 6.
7 Plutarch, Antony 6, 9.
8 Plutarch, Antony 9; in general see Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 26, ad Att. 10. 10, Serv. on E10 De vir. Ill. 82. 2. Cicero’s distastė only became public in the Philippics 2. 58, 69, 77;in general see P. Grimal, Love in Ancient Rome (1986), pp.222–237.
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