9. Keating, Narrative, 2:5–8.
10. Ibid., 12–14.
11. Ibid., 14–15.
12. Ibid., 16–17.
13. Ibid., 19–20, 32.
14. Ibid., 37, 39, 42, 44.
15. Ibid., 42–43.
16. Gerhard J. Ens, Homeland to Hinterland: The Changing Worlds of the Red River Metis in the Nineteenth Century (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), 20.
17. Keating, Narrative, 2:39–40.
18. Ibid., 40–41. The origin of Métis culture is complicated and lies somewhere in the late seventeenth to mid-eighteenth centuries in the Great Lakes region of Canada, when mixed-blood offspring of French fur traders began to carve out a distinct role for themselves as middlemen in the trade relations between Europeans and Indians. The development of a large and distinct Métis community in the Red River valley commenced in the early 1800s and stemmed mainly from the policies and practices of the North West Company. Ens, Homeland to Hinterland, 14–17.
19. Keating, Narrative, 2:54–55.
20. Ibid., 55, 72.
21. Ibid., 72–74.
22. Long, The Northern Expeditions of Stephen H. Long, 191–207.
CHAPTER 29. THE COMING OF THE PROPHET
1. Tanner, Narrative, 98; Alwin, “Pelts, Provisions and Perceptions,” 22.
2. Edmunds, The Shawnee Prophet, 33–41.
3. Ibid., 38. For analysis of evolving Indian ideas about race, and Indian cultural responses to white Americans in particular, see Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country, especially 158–62.
4. Ibid., 70–71; John Sugden, Tecumseh: A Life (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1997), 166, 170–73.
5. Edmunds, The Shawnee Prophet, 40; Sugden, Tecumseh, 146–47; John T. Fierst, “Strange Eloquence: Another Look at The Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner,” in Reading Beyond Words: Contexts in Native History, Jennifer Brown and Elizabeth Vibert, eds. (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 1996), 226–27.
6. Tanner, Narrative, 144–45.
7. Ibid., 145–47.
8. Ibid., 146.
9. Ibid., 146–47. For another, similar account of the Ojibwa response to the Shawnee Prophet, see Warren, History of the Ojibway Nation, 320–23.
10. On the orphans, see Tanner, Narrative, 121, 148. On being denied due respect for his hunting prowess, see pages 120–23.
11. Henry, The Journal of Alexander Henry the Younger, 1:182–84; Tanner, Narrative, 147, 157.
12. Tanner, Narrative, 147.
13. Peers, The Ojibwa of Western Canada, 63–64; Hickerson, “The Genesis of a Trading Post Band,” 232–24; Henry, The Journal of Alexander Henry the Younger, 1:195, 294.
14. Dan Flores, “Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains from 1800 to 1850,” Journal of American History 78, no. 2 (September 1991), 475–76; Charles R. Watrall, “Virginia Deer and the Buffer Zone in the Late Prehistoric–Early Protohistoric Periods in Minnesota,” Plains Anthropologist 13, no. 40 (May 1968), 81–86.
15. Hickerson, The Chippewa and Their Neighbors, 106–119.
16. Tanner, Narrative, 74–75, 146, 158–61, 168; Warren, History of the Ojibway Nation, 354; Henry, The Journal of Alexander Henry the Younger, 1:300.
17. Tanner, Narrative, 161–62; Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country, 172–75.
18. Tanner, Narrative, 151–52.
19. Ibid., 157, 166–67.
20. Reginald Horsman, The Causes of the War of 1812 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1962), 158–71; Calloway, Crown and Calumet, 228.
21. Edmunds, The Shawnee Prophet, 50–53, 76; Warren, History of the Ojibway Nation, 323–24; Sugden, Tecumseh, 174.
22. Warren, History of the Ojibway Nation, 324; Tanner, Narrative, 168–69, 185–90.
23. Tanner, Narrative, 168–69, 184–85, 252; Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, 76, 88–91.
CHAPTER 30. A LOATHSOME MAN
1. Tanner, Narrative, 172; Pritchett, The Red River Valley, 89; George Bryce, “The Five Forts of Winnipeg,” in Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for the year 1885, Vol. 3 (Montreal: Dawson Brothers Publishers, 1886), 138.
2. Tanner, Narrative, 172.
3. Ibid., 172–73.
4. Ibid., 173.
5. Ibid., 174.
6. Ibid., 174–75.
7. Ibid., 120, 176–77. This entire incident was described in brief in a letter of John Allan of Montreal dated November 1818, as reproduced in Keating, Narrative, 2:121–22. The document was among the reference letters Tanner carried with him in 1823 and was written as an attest to his honorable relations with the traders.
CHAPTER 31. SORCERY AND SICKNESS
1. Tanner, Narrative, 203–4.
2. Ibid., 167, 171, 187; D. Wayne Moodie and Barry Kaye, “Indian Agriculture in the Fur Trade Northwest,” Prairie Forum 11, no. 2 (Fall 1986), 173–74.
3. Tanner, Narrative, 206–7, 252; Elizabeth T. Baird, “Reminiscences of Early Days on Mackinac Island,” Wisconsin Historical Collections 14 (1898), 47–55.
4. Tanner, Narrative, 185–86; John West, The Substance of a Journal During a Residence at the Red River Colony and Frequent Excursions Among the North-West American Indians, in the Years 1820, 1821, 1822, 1823 (1824; reprint, Project Gutenberg eBook, 2007), 27; Shawn Smallman, “Spirit Beings, Mental Illness, and Murder: Fur Traders and the Windigo in Canada’s Boreal Forest, 1774–1935,” Ethnohistory 57, no. 4 (Fall 2010), 574, 578.
5. Tanner, Narrative, 186–87.
6. Ibid., 188–90.
7. Ibid., 191–92; Anastasia M. Shkilnyk, A Poison Stronger Than Love: The Destruction of an Ojibwa Community (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 95–99.
8. Tanner, Narrative, 190–91.
9. Moodie and Kaye, “Indian Agriculture in the Fur Trade Northwest,” 175; Tanner, Narrative, 190–92.
10. Tanner, Narrative, 192; Pritchett, The Red River Valley, 77–79, 93–103.
11. Tanner, Narrative, 192–93; Pritchett, The Red River Valley, 103.
12. Tanner, Narrative, 192–93.
13. Ibid., 193–94; Paul Hackett, A Very Remarkable Sickness: Epidemics in the Petit Nord, 1670–1846 (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2002), 41, 129–36.
14. A. Irving Hallowell, The Ojibwa of Berens River, Manitoba: Ethnography into History, edited with preface and afterword by Jennifer S. H. Brown (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, 1991), 68–71; Tanner, Narrative, 193–94.
15. Tanner, Narrative, 194.
16. Ibid., 154–55, 157, 162–66, 195, 201.
17. Ibid., 200–201.
18. Ibid., 201–3.
19. Ibid., 204–5.
20. Ibid., 205–6.
21. Ibid., 207–8.
CHAPTER 32. TAKING FORT DOUGLAS
1. Tanner, Narrative, 204, 211, 213; Moodie and Kaye, “Indian Agriculture in the Fur Trade Northwest,” 178.
2. D. W. Moodie, “Agriculture and the Fur Trade,” in Rethinking the Fur Trade, 89–90, 102.
3. Halkett, Statement, xviii, xlviii; Tanner, Narrative, 209.
4. Tanner, Narrative, 209–11.
5. Ibid., 209–12; Halkett, Statement, xlvii–xlix.
6. Tanner, Narrative, 212–13.
7. Ibid., 213.
8. Ibid., 213–14; M.S. by Lord Selkirk Relating to Red River, National Archives of Canada (hereafter NAC), Selkirk Papers, Roll C-12, pp. 12769–70.
9. Tanner, Narrative; M.S. by Lord Selkirk Relating to Red River, NAC, Selkirk Papers, Roll C-12, pp. 12770–74; Pritchett, The Red River Valley, 194.
10. Tanner, Narrative, 214–16.
11. Ibid., 201; John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1823–1824, HBCA, B.105/a/9 (entry for September 1, 1823).
12. Tanner, Narrative, 214; Pritchett, The Red River Valley, 194. On Be-gwais, see Hugh A. Dempsey, “Peguis,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online at www.biographi.ca
13. Tanner, Narrative, 214; Geor
ge Bryce, “Sketch of the Life of John Tanner, A Famous Manitoba Scout,” Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba 30 (1888), 3.
14. Tanner, Narrative, 214–15.
15. Ibid., 215; M.S. by Lord Selkirk Relating to Red River, NAC, Selkirk Papers, Roll C-12, pp. 12778–12780; Pritchett, The Red River Valley, 194.
16. Tanner, Narrative, 216.
17. Ibid., 221; Bryce, “Sketch of the Life of John Tanner,” 3.
18. Tanner, Narrative, 221–22. Selkirk’s description of Tanner is quoted in Bryce, “Sketch of the Life of John Tanner,” 3–4.
19. Tanner, Narrative, 221. Probably another factor influencing Tanner was that Therezia gave birth to another child around this time. This child, their fourth, died of measles in the fall of 1819 (Tanner, p. 252).
20. Ibid., 221–22.
21. Bryce, “Sketch of the Life of John Tanner,” 3–4.
22. “Indian Captive Reclaimed,” The Weekly Recorder 5, no. 27 (February 12, 1819), 215. See also the note on Edward Tanner in Wisconsin Historical Collections 8 (1879; reprint, 1908), 475.
CHAPTER 33. ROUGH JUSTICE
1. Tanner, Narrative, 226.
2. Ibid., 229–30; Hallowell, The Ojibwa of Berens River, Manitoba, 87–91.
3. Tanner, Narrative, 225–29.
4. Ibid., 230–31.
5. Ibid., 231–32.
6. Ibid., 232–33.
7. Ibid., 233.
8. Ibid., 233–34.
9. Ibid., 234.
CHAPTER 34. IN SEARCH OF KIN
1. Tanner, Narrative, 234–35; Myron Momvyk, “Charles Oakes Ermatinger,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online at www.biographi.ca
2. Tanner, Narrative, 235–36; Frank B. Woodford, Lewis Cass: The Last Jeffersonian (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1950), 116.
3. Tanner, Narrative, 236; “A Captive Found,” The Weekly Recorder 5, no. 5 (August 2, 1818), 39.
4. William Carl Klunder, Lewis Cass & the Politics of Moderation (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1996), 31–33; Francis Paul Prucha and Donald F. Carmony, “A Memorandum of Lewis Cass: Concerning A System for the Regulation of Indian Affairs,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 52, no. 1 (Fall 1968), 35–50; Jay H. Buckley, William Clark: Indian Diplomat (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008), 116–23; Witgen, An Infinity of Nations, 338–44. Illinois gained statehood in December 1818 and was its own territory prior to statehood. Illinois governor Ninian Edwards was also involved in Indian policy, though not as much as Cass and Clark.
5. Tanner, Narrative, 236; “Abstract of expenditures by William Clark, Governor of Missouri Territory, as Superintendent of Indian Affairs, from 1st January to 31st December, 1820,” American State Papers: Indian Affairs, 2:290. Emphasis added.
6. “Indian Captive Reclaimed,” The Weekly Recorder 5, no. 27 (February 12, 1819), 215.
7. Tanner, Narrative, 241–43.
8. Ibid., 243–44.
9. Ibid., 247–48; “The Indian Captive Reclaimed,” The Philadelphia Register and National Recorder 1, no. 7 (February 13, 1819), 127.
10. Tanner, Narrative, 248; “The Indian Captive Reclaimed,” The Philadelphia Register and National Recorder 1, no. 7 (February 12, 1819), 127.
11. Tanner, Narrative, 248–49; “The Devil Worshipped,” The Latter Day Luminary 1, no. 7 (May 1, 1819), 362; “Substance of the Minutes of the Board,” The Latter Day Luminary 1, no. 8 (May 2, 1819), 379.
12. Tanner, Narrative, 248, 250; “The Indian Captive Reclaimed,” The Philadelphia Register and National Recorder 1, no. 7 (February 12, 1819), 127.
13. Tanner, Narrative, 250.
14. Margaret Jacobs, White Mother to a Dark Race: Settler Colonialism, Maternalism, and the Removal of Indigenous Children in the American West and Australia, 1880–1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 52–53. Also pertinent for Clark was the fact that he himself had adopted two mixed-blood children, the daughter and son of Sakakewea and Toussaint Charbonneau, following their mother’s death in 1812.
15. Tanner, Narrative, 250.
CHAPTER 35. BETWEEN TWO WORLDS
1. Tanner, Narrative, 252.
2. Baird, “Reminiscences of Early Days on Mackinac Island,” 50–51.
3. Susan Sleeper-Smith, “Women, Kin, and Catholicism: New Perspectives on the Fur Trade,” in Rethinking the Fur Trade, 462–65.
4. Baird, “Reminiscences of Early Days on Mackinac Island,” 51–52.
5. John Tanner to Martin Van Buren, November 10, 1837, reprinted in John T. Fierst, “Return to ‘Civilization,’ John Tanner’s Troubled Years at Sault Ste. Marie,” Minnesota History 50, no. 1 (Spring 1986), 25. Another record of Lucy Tanner, of her formal baptism performed in Detroit on August 4, 1821, is printed in Wisconsin Historical Collections 19 (1910), 134.
6. Tanner, Narrative, 253.
7. Ibid., 253–54.
8. Ibid., 254–55.
9. Buckley, William Clark, 120.
10. Tanner, Narrative, 256–57; “Abstract of expenditures by William Clark,” 2:290.
11. Tanner, Narrative, 257.
12. Carl O. Sauer, “Homestead and Community on the Middle Border,” in Land and Life: A Selection from the Writings of Carl Ortwin Sauer, John Leighly, ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 33–34; Cardinal L. Goodwin, “Early Exploration and Settlement of Missouri and Arkansas,” Missouri Historical Review 14 (April–July 1920), 400–401.
13. Tanner, Narrative, 257.
14. Ibid., 257–58. The scenario described here is an educated guess as to what actually happened. Tanner’s Narrative states: “On the ensuing spring an attempt was made to recover something for my benefit from the estate of my father; but my stepmother sent several of the negroes, which it was thought might fall to me, to the island of Cuba, where they were sold. This business is yet unsettled, and remains in the hands of the lawyers.”
15. Ibid., 259–61.
16. Baird, “Reminiscences of Early Days on Mackinac Island,” 53.
17. Tanner, Narrative, 261–64.
CHAPTER 36. CHIEF FACTOR
1. Interview with Eloisa Harvey, June 20, 1878, OSHC, MSS 927, Box 2. Eloisa’s mention of separate spheres is reinforced by a later description of Dr. and Mrs. McLoughlin in US House, Report of Lieut. Neil M. Howison, United States Navy to the Commander of the Pacific Squadron, House Misc. Rept. 29, 30th Cong., 1st sess., 1848, 12–13.
2. Morrison, Outpost, 343.
3. Simpson, “Character Book,” 190. The character sketch was written in 1832.
4. John Nicks, “Orkneymen in the Hudson’s Bay Company 1780–1821,” in Old Trails and New Directions: Papers of the Third North American Fur Trade Conference, Carol M. Judd and Arthur J. Ray, eds. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980), 102–3; John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822–1823, HBCA B.105/e/2.
5. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journals for 1822–1823 and 1823–1824, HBCA, B.105/a/8 and 9; Lac La Pluie Account Books for 1821–1822, 1822–1823, and 1823–1824, HBCA, B.105/d/4–6.
6. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/e/2.
7. Harold Hickerson, “Land Tenure of the Rainy Lake Chippewa at the Beginning of the 19th Century,” Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 2 (1967), 54; John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1825–1826, HBCA, B.105/a/11 (entry for May 15, 1826); John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/e/2.
8. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8 (entry for October 7, 1822).
9. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8 (entry for November 2, 1822).
10. White, “A Skilled Game of Exchange,” 231; Peers, The Ojibwa of Western Canada, 34.
11. Ray and Freeman, “Give Us Good Measure,” 231–45.
12. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8 (entry for November 2, 1822).
CHAPTE
R 37. PROVIDENCE
1. Podruchny, Making the Voyageur World, 211–17.
2. Hickerson, “Land Tenure of the Rainy Lake Chippewa at the Beginning of the 19th Century,” 50; John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/e/2; John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8 (entries for September 23 and 30, 1822).
3. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8.
4. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal, HBCA, B.105/a/8 (entries for December 28, 1822, and January 4, 1823).
5. Mary Black-Rogers, “Varieties of ‘Starving’: Semantics and Survival in the Subarctic Fur Trade, 1750–1850,” Ethnohistory 33, no. 4 (Fall 1986), 353–70.
6. John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1825–1826, HBCA, B.105/a/11 (entry for May 15, 1826).
7. Calloway, Crown and Calumet, 167–68.
8. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822–1823, HBCA, B105/a/8 (entry for September 15, 1822).
9. McLoughlin, “Description of the Indians from Fort William to Lake of the Woods,” 10.
10. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1823–1824, HBCA, B.105/a/9 (entry for January 23, 1824); John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8 (entries for March 17, April 12, May 10, May 17, May 26, 1823).
CHAPTER 38. OPPOSING THE AMERICANS
1. Galbraith, “British-American Competition in the Border Fur Trade of the 1820s,” 241–42; Simpson letter quoted in Lamb, ed., McLoughlin’s Fort Vancouver Letters, xliv.
2. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8 (entry for September 26, 1822).
3. John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822–1823, HBCA, B.105/e/2.
4. David Lavender, “Some American Characteristics of the American Fur Company,” in Aspects of the Fur Trade: Selected Papers of the 1965 North American Fur Trade Conference (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1967), 36–37.
5. Astor quoted in Galbraith, The Hudson’s Bay Company, 53.
6. Arthur J. Ray, “Some Conservation Schemes of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1821–1850: An Examination of the Problems of Resource Management in the Fur Trade,” Journal of Historical Geography 1 (1975), 50; R. Harvey Fleming, ed., Minutes of Council Northern Department of Rupert Land, 1821–31 (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1940), 314–15; Galbraith, The Hudson’s Bay Company, 54.
Rainy Lake House Page 49
